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FIRE HAZARDS IN TEXTILE MILLS, 


MILL ARCHITECTURE, 

AND 

MEANS FOE EXTINGUISHING FIRE. 


[THREE LECTURES DELIVERED BEFORE THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE. REVISED 
FOR PUBLICATION IN THE JOURNAL OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, 

AND PRINTED BY PERMISSION OF THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION.] 


BY 


C. JOHN HEXAMER, 

SUBVEYOB AND EXPERT OF THE PHILADELPHIA FIBE UNDEBWBITEES’ TABIFF ASSOCIATION, 

Member of the Franklin Institute, American Association for the Advancement 
of Science, Philadelphia Engineers’ Club, German Chemical Society 
of Berlin, Associate of the American Institute of 
Mining Engineers, Etc., Etc. 


[Entered According to Act or Congress, in the Year 1885, by C. John Hexamer.] 


PRICE, $1.00. 


PHILADELPHIA : 

PUBLISHED BY E. HEXAMER, 419 WALNUT STREET. 

1 8 85 . 

















©HAHE.es PLATT, Jr.’s 

iisrsuK.i^2sroE ageitoy, 

No. 401 WALNUT STREET, 


PHILADELPHIA, PA. 


COMP-^ZLTZCES REPRESENTED: 

LANCASHIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND. 

ESTABLISHED 1852. 

Assets in TJ. S., $1,488,322. Surplus in TJ. S., $681,950, 


CONTINENTAL INSURANCE COMPANY, NEW YORK. 

ESTABLISHED 1853. 

Capital, - - $1,000,000. 

Assets, $4,938,502. Net Surplus, $1,535,222. 


SUN FIRE OFFICE, LONDON, ENGLAND. 

ESTABLISHED 1710. 

Assets in TJ. S., $1,673,533. Surplus in TJ. S., $458,276. 


WASHINGTON FIRE AND MARINE INSURANCE CO., Boston, Mass. 

ESTABLISHED 1872. 

Capital, - - $1,000,000. 

Assets, $1,607,415. Net Surplus, $55,562. 


BOSTON UNDERWRITERS, BOSTON, MASS. 

Capital, - - $800,000. 

Assets, $1,619,544. Net Surplus, $509,917. 


AMERICAN INSURANCE COMPANY, BOSTON, MASS. 

ESTABLISHED 1818. 

Capital, - - $300,000. 

Assets, $578,231. Net Surplus, $141,020. 

COMMERCE INSURANCE COMPANY, ALBANY, NEW YORK. 

ESTABLISHED 1859. 

Capital, - - $200,000. 

Assets, $426,275. Net Surplus, $130,926. 

SPRINGFIELD FIRE AND MARINE INS. CO., Springfield, Mass. 

ESTABLISHED 1849. 

Capital, - - $1,000,000. 

Assets, $2,562,510. Net Surplus, $236,374. 

HOME INSURANCE COMPANY NEW YORK CITY. 

ESTABLISHED 1853. 

Capital, - - $3,000,000. 

Assets, $7,395,091. Net Surplus, $1,141,727. 













FIRE HAZARDS IN TEXTILE MILLS, 
MILL ARCHITECTURE, 

• i r 

AND 

MEANS FOR EXTINGUISHING FIRE, 


THREE LECTURES DELIVERED BEFORE THE 
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, 



C. JOFIN HEXAMER, 

SURVEYOR AND EXPERT OF THE PHILADELPHIA FIRE UNDERWRITERS' TARIFF ASSOCIATION, 

Member of the Franklin Institute, American Association for the Advancement 
of Science, Philadelphia Engineers’Club, German Chemical Society 
of Berlin, Associate of the American Institute of 
Mining Engineers, Etc., Etc. 



•V'' j* 


PHILADELPHIA : 

“MERRIHEW PRINT” (J. SPENCER SMITH), 501 CHESTNUT STREET. 

1 8 85. 




I 



PREFACE. 

This little book contains the stenographic notes of three lectures 
recently delivered before the Franklin Institute. It was not the 
intention of the author to print them, as he wished to use them for the 
foundation of a larger illustrated work. Requests to publish them 
have, however, been so .numerous, not only from underwriters and 
textile manufacturers, but the press in general, that the manuscript was 
reluctantly allowed to go to the printer. 

The writer hopes that he has, to a limited extent, made up for what is 
wanting in rotundity of diction, by a concise statement of facts which 
represents the labor, hard study and original research of years. 

Philadelphia, March 1,1885. 




FIRE HAZARDS IN TEXTILE MILLS.* 


When we"consider that in the year 1883 about one hundred million 
dollars* worth of property was destroyed by fire throughout the United 
States, and if losses continue at the present rate they will this year 
amount to one hundred and twenty-eight million dollars, we must 
admit that the study of fires and their causes is of intense interest and 
of the greatest practical value. For the sums just quoted are so great 
that the mind cannot conceive them; it is only by comparison that we 
- can arrive at an approximate idea. Let us suppose that a clerk was 
counting off single dollar notes for the payment of these losses, and 
that he could count at the rapid rate of 100 in a minute; it would 
take him 2*43 years to complete his task, without a moment of sleep 
or rest. Or suppose I placed one dollar notes representing the amount 
of this annual fire waste in line lengthwise, edge to edge; it would 
form a line of greenbacks 7,893,333*3 feet long; or, to express it in 
miles, a strip 1,494*9 miles in length. 

One of our technical papers, in moralizing on the annual fire loss 
over a year ago, truly said : 

“All of the former huge amount of property has literally been blotted out 
of existence. Whether the losses were borne by the insurance companies 
or by individuals, the result is the complete extermination of just so much 
wealth which was created by human effort and ingenuity. The world is 
poorer by that amount than it would have been could these fires have been 
avoided. 

“A person who considers these facts and figures thoughtfully must be 
impressed with the conviction that the existing means of preventing and 
extinguishing fires are either very inadequate or very greatly neglected. 

“ The whole matter will have to receive more consideration in the future 
than has hitherto been given to it. Civilized society, which leans so much 
upon human industry, cannot afford to permit vast quantities of the fruits 
of industry to be blotted out every year, when preventives are within 
reach.” 

As is the case in other investigations, it is most difficult to discover 
the origins—used here in its true sense, that is, causes—of fires. 
Before preventive measures against enemies of mankind can intelli- 


* A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, Dec. 12, 1884. 





4 


gently be undertaken, be they epidemics or dangers of the elements, 
we must first know the causes which underlie the evil we wish to over¬ 
come. But the writer and observer on this subject labors under diffi¬ 
culties which the student of no other subject encounters to a like degree. 
The student of a new disease may note the symptoms of a great num¬ 
ber of cases which he can diligently himself examine ; we, on the 
other hand, receive our accounts from persons who observed what we 
most wish to know, while excited and frightened to a craze, and but 
seldom do cases occur where not all traces of the origin have been 
destroyed, while it is exceedingly difficult to obtain information from 
employes, especially from watchmen, which would reflect badly on 
their judgment or honesty in performing their duty. 

In order to lessen the number of fires, not so much better means for 
extinguishing, but methods of preventing them, are required; and 
fires can only be prevented by a proper understanding of fire hazards 
by all classes. While means for extinguishing fires are daily approach¬ 
ing perfection, fire hazards are daily, through new inventions necessi¬ 
tating the employment of dangerous substances and processes, increased, 
and it is to the discovery of the hazards of every class of risks, and 
the invention of preventive means, to which the student of this sub¬ 
ject must chiefly turn his attention. It is to the study of the fire 
hazards of a large class—textile mills—to which we turn our attention 
to-night. 

One of the most trustworthy and complete tables, on the origins of 
fires in textile mills, is that kept by the Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual 
Fire Insurance Company since October 1, 1850, which was furnished 
me complete up to January 1, 1884, through the kindness of Mr. C. 
J. Woodbury, their inspector. This table includes only establish¬ 
ments insured by that company, of the best types of this class. It gives 
the causes and numbers of fires resulting from them as follows: 


Causes. Number of Fires. 

Foreign substances in pickers. 165 

Friction. .. 187 

Spontaneous combustion through oils. 115 

Matches..q... 52 

Lighting apparatus. 36 

Sparks and defective chimneys. 33 

Incendiary..... 20 

Spontaneous combustion of dyed cloth or yarn. 26 

Broken lanterns and lamps. 17 

Lightning...;. 13 












Causes. Number of Fires. 

Fireworks. 7 

Stoves. 4 

Pipes and cigars..... 4 

Window glass acting as lens, concentrating the rays of the sun. 3 

Spontaneous combustion of bituminous coal. 3 

Electricity from belts. 3 

Electric light... 25 

Water inducing rapid oxidation of iron turnings, which set fire to the 

saw dust mixed with it. 2 

(One of these was caused by a freshet.) 

Hot irons. 2 

Cutting iron hoops on cotton bales with axes, sparks setting the cotton 

on fire... 7 

Heat from furnaces. 5 

Wood in contact with boiler setting. 1 

Result of boiler explosion. 1 


One was caused by a man accidentally dropping an open penknife 
on a small bunch of cotton card waste, which burst into flames. After 
the fire was extinguished, a quartz pebble about one-eighth of an inch 
in diameter was found on the floor; the steel blade, hitting this pebble, 
struck the spark which ignited the cotton. 


Causes. Number of Fires. 

Matches. 12 

Gas. 7 

Steam pipes. 5 

Mice. 1 

Hot flues. 1 

Sparks from emory wheel. 1 

Petroleum. 1 

Gasoline vapors. 2 

Breaking of shaft. 1 


Let us now turn from statistics to a closer inspection of the hazards, 
beginning with the raw stock in its process through the mill. 

RAW STOCK. 

It may be stated, as an almost infallible rule, and I think the expe¬ 
rience of underwriters will bear me out, that, under like other condi¬ 
tions, the fire hazard increases indirectly as the quality of raw stock, 
and therefore also indirectly with the quality of the manufactured 
goods; that is, the poorer the grade of raw stock, the greater the fire 
hazard. It is absolutely necessary for a mill inspector to be conver¬ 
sant with the different kinds of raw stock, and he should be able to 
























6 


make microscopic and chemical tests of the same, in order to determine 
the exact proportions of mixed stocks for himself, as the statements of 
the assured may be, and frequently are, incorrect. We will, further 
on, make microscopic tests, on a large scale, by examining the different 
kinds of stock, as thrown on the screen by the projecting microscope. 

In our part of the country the so-called “ mixed ” mills are found to 
a great extent, and these, on account of the greater fire hazard inherent 
to them, are of special interest to us to-night. In its widest meaning, 
a “mixed mill” is one in which cotton and wool is spun (by which I 
include the previous processes of picking). The amount of cotton 
adulteration in the so-called woolen goods depends on the demands of 
the market for which the manufacturer is working; therefore the pro¬ 
portions of raw stocks in many “ mixed mills ” are constantly chang¬ 
ing from nearly all wool to nearly all cotton. By wool is meant the 
animal fibre of that name in any condition, and includes wool, shoddy, 
extract, waste, etc. 

Cotton, as a rule, comes to the mill in a pure state; but, as in wool, 
there are different grades to be taken into account, not only from their 
commercial value, but as to their fire hazard in being worked. The 
most objectionable grade is “ damaged cotton,” which has undergone 
partial destruction by fire, and which (in order to conceal the marks 
of charring) has been dyed with a dark color. Such cotton when run 
over the cards will create a great amount of fly, and is, therefore, as 
we shall presently see, much more dangerous than better grades. 
Dirty cotton has often been the cause of picker fires, and I am 
informed that bales are- sometimes fraudulently loaded with sand and 
gravel to increase their weight. 

As picker fires are generally due to stones, pieces of iron/ etc., 
which, in coming in contact with the whipper, strike sparks, the value 
of clean carefully inspected cotton, from the fire point of view is self- 
evident, and also the absolute necessity of better methods and greater 
care of Southern cotton growers in ginning, baling and transporting 
it. This desideratum, which could not be instilled into the planters 
by way of the head and heart, has gradually entered them by way of 
the purse, as they have found that it is commercially more advanta¬ 
geous to place their stock in the market in a clean condition, and they 
will, no doubt, very soon deliver it to their customers more free from 
hazardous foreign particles. 

Cotton carding waste is sometimes used in low grade mixed mills, 


7 


and as it is very short fibred, being carded out in the white cotton 
mill, creates much fly and dirt in working it; and mills using it are 
very dirty and hazardous. Reginned cotton is another low grade 
hazardous stock. 

Wool is a much safer stock than cotton; pure woolen mills are not 
frequently destroyed by causes directly or indirectly resulting from the 
stock; and pure worsted mills are among our best risks. It is through 
the adulteration of the wool that fire hazards are created, and in a 
direct proportion with the amount of adulteration. 

Care should be exercised in wool-sorting rooms, as fires have been 
caused by the ignition of tar-marked fleeces laid on steam heating 
pipes to soften the tar used to mark the sheep. Mr. C. J. Woodbury 
suggests the following safe and efficient manner of softening the tar: 

“ A box about eight feet long, two feet wide and six inches deep, is 
provided with a bottom made of wire gauze of about one-half inch 
mesh. Under this box is a piece of iron pipe, with perforations upon 
the upper side, and connected with the steam supply. When this box 
is filled with fleeces, and the numerous jets of steam blown through’ 
them, they are softened much more rapidly than by warming in the 
usual manner around steam pipes or stoves.” 

Wool shoddy is a short fibred wool manufactured from rags. The 
picking of shoddy is very hazardous, and it is generally manufactured 
in extra mills (shoddy mills), and the stock or yarn sold to others. 
Where shoddy is made in a mixed mill it greatly increases the hazard, 
and the greatest care must be taken in the location and construction of 
the picker room. When used in large quantities in mixed mills it 
becomes a source of danger from the amount of dirt and fly made in 
carding. In picking the rags at the shoddy mill, much oil is fre¬ 
quently used on the stock. The kind of oil is of great importance, 
for if animal oils are used spontaneous combustion of the stock may 
ensue on being piled in quantity, and if some of the so-called wool 
oils be used, which are mixtures of animal oil and petroleum, the 
petroleum vapors arising from it during the process of manufacture 
may become dangerous. Yarns manufactured from shoddy picked 
with wool oil sometimes contain enough oil, even when dyed, to 
become dangerous on exposure to a high temperature in the dry house. 
The reason for this is that mineral oil will not readily saponify. An 
emulsion of lard oil and water with a little ammonia is the safest 


8 


substance to use on wool. Olive oil, which is frequently adulterated 
with cotton seed oil, should not be used. 

Wool Extract is a shoddy manufactured from rags of a mixed stock, 
the cotton contained in them having been dissolved by dilute sulphuric 
acid. It has the objectionable features of shoddy. 

Worsted waste , when clean from the drawing frames, is a very good 
stock, as it has been combed, and when not oily is cleaner and safer 
than raw wool. The so-called woolen noils, which is the soft waste 
taken from the wool on the combs, is also a good stock but not as good 
as pure wool. 

Silk noils is tlqe waste from the combs obtained in manufacturing 
spun silk yarns, is but seldom used, and is not specially hazardous. 

In the lowest grades of mixed mills, where a cheap carpet yarn is 
made, hair, jute, flax, hemp, etc., are sometimes used in mixing. These 
stocks materially increase the hazard of the mill. 

As before stated it is not only important for the insurance inspector 
and adjuster to distinguish a good from a poor grade of wool, but he 
should also be able to detect any cotton in woolen goods. This may, 
by practice, generally be detected at sight, or by the rough test of 
ignition. Animal fibres when singed give off a smell of burnt feath¬ 
ers, and when ignited in the flame of a candle are almost immediately 
extinguished, a carbonaceous residue being left; cotton and linen 
fibres continue to burn, do not give off the smell of burnt feathers, 
and do not leave a carbonaceous mass when extinguished. Where a 
little potash may be procured, the best and most reliable test is to 
place a piece of the goods in a solution of caustic potash; the wool 
being dissolved, the cotton remaining intact. 

Another easily applicable test is that of nitric acid. On boiling 
tissues in this acid, silk will assume a light yellow, wool a dark yellow 
color, while flax, cotton and hemp will remain white. If the propor¬ 
tions of the different components are sought, a small piece of the 
goods is taken, carefully washed, to free it of all grease, and dried, 
this is then carefully weighed and boiled with caustic soda until the 
animal fibres are completely dissolved. The lye solution is then run * 
through a filter, while the fibres remaining on the filter are thoroughly 
washed with water. The loss in weight of the fibres when dried will 
then give the amount of animal matter. 

The best qualitative test is an examination with a good microscope. 
Under the microscope, as we will presently notice on the screen, cotton 


9 


lias a flowing, twisted, band-like appearance; linen fibres appear as 
slender cylindrical reeds; wool lias a thick circular stalk covered with 
scales ; silk is slender, smooth, and shines brilliantly. 

We cannot too well impress that the shapes and lengths of the raw 
stock are of the utmost importance in “ Fire Technology,” and that the 
causes of a great number of fires in “ mixed mills ” may be directly 
traced to the nature (physical and chemical character) of the raw stock 
used. 

Raw wool—although it does not burn readily—Is a more unprofit¬ 
able stock to insure than is generally supposed. There is but a poor 
salvage on wool. The keratin, the principal part of wool, when wet, 
ferments and decays, the wool thus becoming worthless. Although a 
stock of wool may not have been damaged by fire, it may still be a 
total loss, as, by the water poured upon it, fermentation has set in. If 
speedily taken care of and dried, wool may be cured, although it sel¬ 
dom regains its original quality. 

Let us now turn to the hazards of Dyeing and Drying. 

The process may be generally divided into : first, the cleaning of yarn, 
warp, or raw stock; secondly, the dyeing proper; and thirdly, drying. 
The first operation consists in boiling and scouring the material; this is 
performed in vats, the scouring being accomplished either by hand or 
automatically by scouring machines. This operation carries no special 
danger from fire with it, except where oily material is scoured, and 
then allowed to lie in heaps. When this is the case, we have one of 
the most favorable circumstances for spontaneous combustion. 

The custom of some dyers of adding oil to the stock in the dye-tubs 
to soften it is a bad one. If properly dried, the oil is superfluous; if 
dried too hot, the presence of the oil in the stock materially increases 
the hazard of fire, from ignition of the damp, oily stock, subjected to 
the heat of the drying chest. 

The process of dyeing creates no danger from fire; a hazard lies in 
the chemicals stored for the process. We here find unslaked lime 
(which, on getting damp, has caused fires); sulphuric acid; piles* of 
logwood in the process of “ curing,” damp and liable to ignite sponta¬ 
neously, etc. Although we have never heard of a fire caused by the 
spontaneous combustion of logwood, yet from what such eminent 
chemical technologists as Muspratt and Stohmann tell us of the nature 
of the process of u curing ” logwood, it seems quite probable that fires 
may originate through its agency. Chlorate of potassium is also some¬ 
times stored, the hazards of which I will speak later. 


10 


The material is, after dyeing, sometimes sized, but whether sized or 
unsized, dried; and it is here that fires in dye works chiefly occur. 
The danger of a dry house depends greatly on the material dried ; for 
piece goods, warps or yarns the danger is not so great as in the case of 
raw stock, and especially raw cotton. In the hot summer months, 
yarns and even sometimes raw stocks are dried on “ drying flatsbut, 
as a rule, they are dried in rooms heated by steam, furnaces, or by the 
natural heat of the boilers below. The steam pipes are arranged to 
run either along the floor, the wall, or, which I am sorry to say is 
seldom the case, along the main ceiling. The last arrangement is pre¬ 
ferable, as in that case it will be impossible for the material to drop on 
the pipes. In this method of drying, the only requirements are that 
steam pipes rest on iron, as live steam pipes will ignite wood, and that 
the steam pipes are kept clean. The antiquated method of drying by 
furnaces is very objectionable, and has, in our country, been almost 
entirely superseded by the much safer process of steam drying. The 
last method, which is frequently used where drying rooms are situated 
over the boiler room, is the most economical process; and, when pro¬ 
perly constructed, so that no yarn dust or fibres may fall within dan¬ 
gerous proximity of the boilers or boiler fire, has no special hazard 
connected with it. Special care should in this case be taken to have 
the boilers well enclosed by brickwork, and where this is not the case, 
a thick layer of sand should be spread on top of them, thus protecting 
them against falling particles. 

The hazard of a yarn dry house varies with the nature of the 
yarns dried. It is safer to dry woolen and worsted than shoddy, cot¬ 
ton or jute yarns. Care must be taken to remove from the steam pipes 
under the floors all the fly and bits of yarn which may accumulate 
thereon. It is not advisable to have lights in dry rooms. Lights 
become especially hazardous when shoddy yarns, spun with low grade 
wool oil or heavy black petroleum oils are used. It is a well-known 
fact that oils of this kind cannot be saponified and washed out before 
dyeing, and must, therefore, be present in the yarns when the latter are 
dried. The heat of the dry rooms soon evaporates the lighter pro¬ 
ducts of the petroleum, and in a short time the dry house is filled with 
very inflammable vapors, which would be readily ignited if brought 
into contact with an open light. 

The custom of filling the dry house with yarn in the evening and 
turning on the steam in order to do the drying at night, when the rest 


11 


of the mill is not in operation, is a very bad one. The majority of 
our dry house fires occur towards morning, and, as a rule, on damp 
nights, when the moisture of the outside air prevents the escape of the 
hot air through the ventilators in the roof, and when the person in 
charge has turned on a full head of steam to overcome the increased 
moisture of the air in the dry house. 

Ventilators in the roof of the yarn dry house which, if closed, open 
automatically when a dangerous temperature is reached in the dry 
room, should never be omitted. 

In the dyeing of raw stock, especially cotton, the question becomes 
changed, and even the best method is dangerous. This stuff will 
flash and spread in an instant, and before the hands employed have 
time to save themselves, everything is in flames. The apparatus for 
drying raw stock usually consists of a box closed at the top by a 
screen, over which the material is placed^ a fan or blower, and the 
steam pipes for supplying heat. It is apparent that these may be put 
together and arranged in the following ways: Either the fan and pipes 
are in the box beneath the screen, or the pipes are outside and the fan 
under the screen, or the fan is outside and the pipes inside, or both are 
outside. The first arrangement is the poorest. In this case, the fan 
would draw the air from outside, force it over the steam pipes and into 
the stock; if a piece of cotton should fall on the pipes below it would 
ignite and impart the flame to the stock above. Besides, in all cases 
in which the fan is below the stock, the shaft and other working parts 
soon become covered with fuzz ; this soaks up the oil with which such 
machinery must constantly be lubricated ; should at any time the jour¬ 
nals, from some cause, as by want of oil, become hot, the greasy waste 
becomes ignited, and the flames ascend to the stock. Hot journals, on 
all kinds of machinery, are by no means seldom occurrences; the 
skillful inspector may frequently have noticed by a test, although not 
very aesthetic yet practical, that by spitting on the journals of revolv¬ 
ing cards, etc., how the saliva instantly vaporized into a cloud of 
steam; and the impatient traveler may often have wondered “ what are 
they are stopping for,” when the simple cause was a hot journal from 
an unoiled axle. 

The second method of drying is better than the first, but is still sub¬ 
ject to the latter objection ; in this case, the steam pipes are above the 
stock, and the hot air is sucked through the stock by the fan (blower) 
beneath. The next is but the reverse of the foregoing, and is seldom 
employed. 


12 


The last is the best; in this case, the steam pipes are over the stock, 
while the fan sucks the hot air through the stock by a flue, which is 
connected with the box. A method often advised by some insurance 
men, but which I believe to be objectionable, is the following: The 
pipes are outside of the box, and on a lower level than the drying 
stock, the fan or blower being also outside and lower than the stock. 
The fan sucks the hot air from the pipes and blows it through a flue 
into the closed space under the stock. Now let us suppose that a thick 
layer of moist stock be laid on the screen, and observe the effect. The 
layer of moist stock will be almost impervious to a current of air, the 
hot air from the fan will be confined, cannot escape from the enclosed 
space below the screen, but the fan will continue pumping hot air into 
the box until very soon a dangerous temperature is reached. 

There is also another mode of drying, but which, on account of the 
slowness of the process, is not much employed, that is by cold air. 
The cold air dryers consist of a chest and fan or blower like the fore¬ 
going, but instead of using artificially heated air, they force through 
the stock air from the room, at the same temperature as the surround¬ 
ing atmosphere. These dryers are very safe ; but, as before stated, 
on account of the slowness with which they work, are not much in 
use. 

When steam coils are used much depends on the construction of the 
box enclosing the pipes. This box should be of iron. It is neces¬ 
sary to have an opening to the box to facilitate the cleaning of the 
steam pipes. 

When air is sucked over the steam pipes, and then blown out through 
the stock, the air-opening in the chest containing the steam pipes 
should, in all cases, be provided with a wire screen to prevent particles 
of stock from being sucked into the chest. Such stock accumulating 
on the spaces between the hot pipes will soon char, and frequently, 
when the fan is started after a short stoppage, the air blast will 
ignite this charring stock and carry it into the chest, causing igni¬ 
tion of the fly which will always be found in the chest. 

Special care must be taken to provide an escape for hot air after 
it has passed through the stock, and the idea of providing no escape 
for the hot air from the enclosed space, in order to keep the heat 
in to do good and rapid drying is erroneous. The air confined in the 
enclosed space, although hot, is so laden with moisture that, instead 
of helping the drying, it retards it. The hot, moist air must be got 


13 


rid of to insure rapid drying. Ventilation is absolutely necessary 
to rapid and safe drying. When ventilation is provided, dry, hot 
air will be constantly supplied to the stock, and the accumulation of 
hot air in an enclosed space will be prevented. 

Systems so arranged that the fan takes the hot air from the 
enclosed space above the stock, and forces it over the steam pipes 
a second time, so that the same air is used over and over again, I 
consider not as safe as a system where the moist air is allowed to 
escape. The continued reheating of the air will soon raise its tem¬ 
perature to such a point that it will do the stock more harm than 
good. Dyed cotton dried in this way is likely to be very harsh to 
the touch, and very hard to work on the cards. The drying of raw 
wool is not by any means as dangerous as that of raw cotton. Nor is 
exhaust steam as hazardous as live steam. 

The simplest and safest method of drying raw stock is, without 
doubt, the frame drying flat, either on the roof of some low building 
or on the ground. Stock dried by this method is uniformly dried. 
It does not show signs of baking, and works easily and softly on 
the cards, less oil being necessary, less fly being thrown off, and hence 
less hazard in the card room. The latter is a very important factor of 
safety in a mill where dyed cotton (black or brown being the most 
hazardous) is used on woolen machinery. The system of drying by 
cold air is similar in its effect on the stock. 

Where certain dyed cloth or yarn is dried, special care must be 
taken to prevent spontaneous combustion of the same; especially 
those in which the required shade of color has-been produced by 
chemicals which absorb oxygen from the air, forming new compounds 
which produce the desired shade. The warmer the material comes 
from the drying cans, the less heat by slow combustion or oxidation is 
required for it to reach the ignition point at which it starts into active 
combustion; or when it is tightly rolled or densely packed the heat 
produced by the chemical action is not conducted away as readily as 
when exposed to the free circulation of the air, and thus accumulating 
soon reaches the ignition temperature of the mass. Fires of this nature 
have been caused by materials colored with browns made from catechu, 
cutch, gambier, or terra Japonica; iron buffs, indigo blue, and cloth 
prepared with oil for Turkey red; and even, though but seldom, in 
logwood and iron blacks; and more frequently in blacks made from 
aniline and its salts. Spontaneous combustion can be prevented by 


14 


cooling the goods thoroughly as they come from the drying cans and 
submitting them to the action of the atmosphere on all sides, they 
should never be piled in quantity or put up in rolls until these pre¬ 
cautions have been taken. Sized goods are not as apt to ignite spon¬ 
taneously as those unsized; but such cases do take place and are 
especially apt to occur where much tallow has been used in the size, 
since animal fats are prone to ignite damp goods spontaneously. Fires 
have been caused by supposed well-cooled goods being piled over night; 
all goods received from drying cans before closing in the evening 
should be placed in a fireproof room for the night, which, in order to 
secure frequent inspections, should be one of the watchman’s stations, 
and should be provided with automatic sprinkler’s and steam jets. 
When the steam supply pipes are properly hung (free from wood work) 
and when proper ventilation is provided, there is no special hazard 
connected with a steam drying cylinder, either when drying piece goods 
or warps. 

Especial care should be exercised in singeing. Goods should not be 
rolled or piled in quantity before being well cooled, and examined for 
glowing particles which may have remained in them. 

Cloth, when woven of yarns spun with wool oil containing low test 
petroleum gives off dangerous vapors if subjected to a high tempera¬ 
ture on the cylinders. I would, therefore, advise to have no artificial 
light in inclosed rooms where this operation is carried on. 

Tentering machines, both horizontal and upright, extending through 
one or more floors, when properly put up are not very hazardous. The 
steam pipes must be frequently cleaned off to remove all fly which will 
accumulate on them, and when the tentering machine is in an inclosed 
room, ventilation is as necessary as in every other process of drying. 

As before stated, chlorate of potassium is now much used in the 
preparation of aniline blacks, which are considerably used in print 
works. The danger of potassium chlorate may best be illustrated by a 
little experiment. 

Before you, on this table, I have a mixture of chlorate of potassium 
and finely powdered sugar. If I add but a drop of sulphuric acid to 
it, the same will ignite and be destroyed in a very short time. 

[This experiment was then carried out.] 

The reason for this is that the sulphuric acid, being a highly hydro¬ 
scopic substance, unites with the water of the sugar, thereby charring 
or burning it, while the combustion is fed on through the oxygen con- 


15 


tained in the chlorate of potassium; a substance which parts very 
readily with the oxygen it holds in chemical combination. The ter¬ 
rible explosions and fires which from time to time occur in candy 
manufactories, manufacturing chlorate of potash drops, may now no 
longer be a mystery to you, as they have been, to many experts, con¬ 
sulted at the times of occurrence. 

PICKING. 

After the raw stock has been properly dyed and dryed it must be 
willowed to remove the dirt; picked to reduce the knotted and tangled 
fibres, and mixed in proper proportions to facilitate the work on the 
cards. 

The picking of the stock is justly considered the most hazardous 
operation in a mill. 

The danger of the picker is the possible presence of foreign particles, 
such as stones, nails, etc., in the stock, coming in contact with the 
rapidly revolving cylinder of steel prongs, causing sparks and fires. 

The hazard is proportionate to the inflammability of the stock. The 
willow, owing to its slow motion, and to the size of the teeth, which 
are frequently of wood, is not as hazardous. On the contrary, widow¬ 
ing the stock before picking it reduces the hazard materially, since 
most of the dust and foreign substances will be removed. 

The mixing picker is the most hozardous, since the various grades 
of stock are passed through it at one time, the hazard being further 
increased by oUing the stock. Saponifying the oil reduces the hazard. 
This is done by adding either ammonia, potash or borax to the oil. 
Where the largest percentage of the mixing is cotton, a cotton-spreader 
is used, which is quite as hazardous, owing to the nature of the stock. 
Frequently a cotton-opener is used. This.machine has caused so many 
fires that some managers have returned to the slower but safer process 
of “opening” the cotton by hand or by a willow before feeding it to 
the spreader. 

In no case should open lights be permitted in picker rooms. Even 
inclosed lanterns will be a source of danger from the possible ignition 
of dust, which may accumulate on the top of the lamps, and which, 
igniting, may drop into a pile of loose stock. A light set in the wall 
provided with a heavy brass plate flush with the inside wall, and 
arranged to be lit from the outside only, is a very safe light for a 


16 


picker room. Incandescent electric lights when properly installed are 
excellent for picker house lighting. 

Manufacturers frequently use their clean waste as a part of their 
“ mixing.” Where soft waste alone is used, no additional hazard is 
added to the picker room. Should, however, hard waste be used, a 
hard waste picker becomes necessary; this is one of the most hazardous 
pickers, equal in danger to the rag picker, which it resembles in con¬ 
struction. Careful managers, cognizant of this fact, do not pick their 
own hard waste, but send it out to be picked at shoddy mills.* 

When a picker strikes fire, the burning stock will naturally be 
blown into the loose stock collected in the picker-box, hence the con¬ 
struction of this box is a very important point. In mills in the 
vicinity of Philadelphia, this box varies with the nature of the stock 
used, when pure wool only is used, the picker-box is often dispensed 
with. Where rags are picked, it is generally fire-proof. A substantial 
picker-box is preferable with any kind of stock. The best construction 
for the purpose is undoubtedly a brick chest with brick-arched ceiling 
with an iron-lined door at one side and an iron-lined slide to close the 
opening in front of the picker in case of an accident. An opening 
beside the door, w hich should be always closel when not used, is neces¬ 
sary for the passage of the air-blast. This opening can be readily made 
“ fire-tight ” by covering it with good strong wire-matting of close 
mesh. In place of this opening I would suggest a brick flue passing 
out of the roof of the picker-house; which can be protected from the 
rain, and will act as a chimney in case of a fire, being a natural outlet 
for smoke and flames without endangering the remainder of the picker- 
room. The only loss then will be the burning of the stock in the 
picker-box, at the time the picker strikes fire. 

The flue from the picker to the dust-box, which should, in all cases 
be outside of the building (in some instances the dust-box is in a corner 
of the basement of the main mill) is best made of sheet-iron. 

An undetected fire mouldering in the dust-box would soon find its 
way through a wooden spout into the picker-room after the picker is 
stopped. A light iron plate at the end of the metal spout so hung that 
it would be kept open by the air-blast when the picker is in'operation 
and closed by its own weight when the picker is stopped, would-be an 
efficient cut-off for a fire starting in the dust-box. 

* I am indebted to Mr. C. A. Hexamer for much valuable information in 
regard to pickers and picker house construction, and have madejCopious 
use of his notes on the subject. 




17 


One of the most objectionable features in the usual construction of 
the picker-house is the size of the edifice. In the majority of mills 
the picker-room is also used as a mixing room. A trifling fire, when 
fed by a day's mixing and a week's stock in bales, will soon cause a 
heavy loss. The picker-room should be as small as possible, so that the 
temptation to make it a stock-room will be overcome. The mixing- 
room can be located in a separate room, separated from the picker- 
room by a brick wall and a good iron-lined door. Where the yard 
space is limited, the mixing-room may be built above the picker-room, 
An opening may be made in the fire-proof ceiling of the picker-room* 
through which the stock can be lowered when ready for the picker. 
This opening in the ceiling should be provided with a fire-proof cover 
so arranged that it will always be closed when not in use. I would 
advise to have the stairway leading to the mixing-room in the second 
story built on the outside, so that there be no other opening in the 
ceiling, except the one closed by the fire-proof trap-door. If the brick 
flue from the picker-box is used, it must necessarily extend through 
the mixing room and out through the roof of the building. Steam 
pipes for heating the mixing-room are only safe when suspended from 
the ceiling. Many fires have occurred from spontaneous combustion 
of oiled stock piled against steam-pipes. The danger from this source 
varies with the nature of the oil used on the stock. 

When “ phosphor bronze" came into use some years ago, Mr. 
Edward Atkinson suggested the substitution of phosphor-bronze for 
iron whippers in the beater, as these would be less apt to produce sparks 
on coming in contact with foreign matter; and had an experimental 
picker manufactured, of which on one-half of the beater, ordinary 
whippers of Norway iron were used, and on the other half, those made 
of phosphor-bronze. Mr. Woodbury describes the results of experi¬ 
ments made with it as follows : “ When the picker was in operation 
a number of pieces of iron were fed in, and a shower of sparks was 
emitted from the iron, but not from the ‘phosphor-bronze' beaters; 
pieces of hard steel were substituted for the iron fed in, but with the 
same result. Phosphor-bronze whippers have been used in the same 
beater with Norway iron whippers for eighteen months; at the end of 
that time, the iron whippers had worn into the steel rods to which they 
were hinged, while there was no perceptible wear between the steel 
rod and the phosphor-bronze whippers. The working edges of the 
phosphor-bronze whippers were sharper than those of iron. The 

2 * 


18 


results of extended investigations in the merits of this alloy show that 
it is superior to iron in safety, durability and efficiency.” 

CARDING. 

The stock having been picked is now ready for the cards. The 
object in carding is the cleaning of the stock of dirt and foreign matter 
which may have remained after the picking, and to “ card out ” the 
short fibre of the stock, at the same time placing the various strands in 
parallel layers to facilitate the subsequent spinning. Cards are gener¬ 
ally arranged in sets of three, and occasinally, of two and four. 

A card consists of a large cylinder from three to four feet in diameter 
covered with card cloth (leather or rubber strips perforated by numer¬ 
ous steel wires of equal Jength), and of a number of smaller cylinders 
from six to eight inches in diameter. The smaller cylinders revolve 
in opposite directions to the large one; that known as the “ fancy ” 
revolving very rapidly. Where cotton or shoddy is used, the fancy 
should in all cases be provided with a metal cover, so that the short 
fibre carded out may be prevented as far as possible from flying about. 
The rapid revolution of the fancy makes it necessary to keep the 
journals of this cylinder well oiled. Carelessness in this respect has 
caused many card-room fires. 

The hazard of the card-room consists chiefly in the accumulation of 
the particles of stock carded out, which, on account of their extreme 
lightness, fill the air of the room, and in settling, cover everything 
with a very inflammable substance usually known as “ fly.” A general 
rule is, the poorer the grade of stock, the greater the amount of fly 
created, hence the greater the hazard of the card-room. Wool only, 
when run over the cards, does not create much fly. When cotton or 
shoddy is mixed with it, the amount of fly is greater; when cotton 
alone, especially dyed cotton is run over woolen cards, the accumula¬ 
tion of fly, and hence the danger from fire, is greatest. 

No doubt many of you have heard of the terrible explosions and 
fires which from time to time occur in flour mills. The reason for this 
is that when any organic substance, such as flour, is finely divided and 
mixed with air, it will, on coming in contact with a flame, be almost 
instantaneously. ignited; the products of combustion being gases of 
many hundred times the volume formerly occupied by the dust, and 
these on expanding, create explosions. 

If we enter a carding-room, in which cotton is worked over open 


19 


woolen cards, we find a condition of things almost analogous to those 
in a flour mill. We here have the entire air filled with a finely divided 
organic substance which, under certain circumstances is even more ex¬ 
plosive and liable to ignite than finely divided flour. The only reason 
that we have not the severe explosions, for we frequently have the 
almost instantaneous fires, that we have in flour mills, is that the card- 
rooms are, as a rule, large, and the gases caused by the almost in¬ 
stantaneous ignition find means of exit without causing explosions. 
While in flower mills we have numerous enclosed spaces, such as 
smutters, mill boxes, elevator boots, etc. 

A substance becomes the more inflammable, the greater its affinity 
for oxygen, thus the combustibility of a fibre increases directly with 
the avidity it has for the oxygen of the air. If, therefore, in the pro¬ 
cesses of dyeing, the property of uniting readily with oxygen has been 
imparted to the fibre, the finely divided fibres, commonly called flies, 
are more apt to ignite. It is for this reason that fibres dyed with 
certain chemicals which absorb oxygen are much more hazardous than 
the ordinary raw stock. Cotton, the purest form of cellulose in nature 
in its treatment with chemicals, required for the production of some 
colors, undergoes a change of state resembling gun cotton. 

• You will, by this time, have perceived the reason why the so-called 
mixed mills are so much more hazardous than the ordinary pure stock 
mills; the reason being that in mixed mills cotton, and frequently dyed 
cotton, is worked over open woolen cards, creating a tremendous 
amount of fine, extremely combustible and explosive cotton fly. 

In order to test the explosiveness of different dusts, I have con¬ 
structed an explosion apparatus. 

The questions to be determined for every kind of dust are at what 
degree of humidity it will cease to explode, how finely divided each 
kind of dust must be in order to explode; and the determination of 
the temperature at the time of explosion. [A large drawing of the 
apparatus was shown.] 

The apparatus consists of an ordinary kitchen boiler, such as are 
used for heating water, with its top taken off. This top may be closed 
by a ring over which tissue paper has been pasted, and the ring is 
tightly screwed on as shown in the figure. In the interior you will 
perceive two hooks, one being for the reception of'a thermometer by 
which the temperature of the atmosphere in the interior may be obtained 
before exploding the dust, and the other for a hygrometer, by which 


20 


i 

the humidity of the contained air is determined. In the bottom of the 
apparatus a gas pipe is inserted, the jet being lighted (in order to secure 
greater safety) by electricity from a distance. On the upper end a 
funnel, with a blower is attached, by means of which the finely divided 
dust may be blown in. In order that I may not be dependent on the 
surrounding atmosphere for the temperature and the humidity of the 
contained air a small boiler is in connection with the apparatus, by 
means of which steam may be blown into the interior, and thereby 
any degree of humidity produced that is desired; while the tempera-^ 
ture may be regulated by the gas jet burning in the bottofti. 

The manner of using the apparatus is as follows : After the tempera¬ 
ture and humidity of the enclosed air has been determined, the thermo¬ 
meter and hygrometer are removed, the cap with the tissue paper cover 
is tightly screwed on, and the dust blown in. When a short time has 
been allowed the dust to mingle with the contained air, the gas jet is 
lighted by means of electricity, and the explosion occurs. 

I am now engaged in making numerous experiments with various 
kinds of organic dusts, which are produced in different technical occupa¬ 
tions ; and will publish the results of my experiments, when they are 
completed. 


SPINNING. 

From the cards the stock is taken to the spinning frames, and this 
department is one of the most prolific sources of fires caused by friction, 
especially in the mule heads, which should be kept thoroughly clean 
and lubricated. The ends of the carriages next to the head should be 
well closed, with an opening just large enough for the drum cords. 
When fires originate in mule heads, these are transmitted throughout 
the machine with almost instantaneous velocity, unless the carriage is 
kept very clean and clear of oily waste. 

OILS. 

Statistics of fires among New England mills have shown that 37 per 
cent, of fire losses are caused by spontaneous combustion, and hot 
journals from friction caused by bad oils. A good lubricating oil 
should not be acid nor strongly alkaline; nor should it, through varia¬ 
tions in temperature, become acid or alkaline. Most vegetable and 
animal oils, when they are exposed to high temperatures, such as that 
of superheated steam, are decomposed, and acids are set free; as they 


21 


are composed of stearic, oleic and palmitic acids combined with glyce¬ 
rine. These free acids corrode the surface of the metals, making them 
rough, and forming compounds which are the very opposite of lubri¬ 
cants. Their use, therefore, for journal boxes, in hot weather, or where 
they become heated, is to be deprecated, for at high temperatures they 
combine with the oxygen of the air and decomposition results. 

A mineral oil never becomes acid from any decomposition, and will 
not corrode the metals to which they are applied. When these are 
mixed with glycerine, they form a very good lubricant. The great 
danger in buying mineral oils is that large quantities are annually put 
into the market far below the necessary flash test. These oils should 
be prepared by fractional distilation at a temperature not below 500° F. 
When.mineral lubricants with a low flash test are used, they are ex¬ 
ceedingly dangerous, as, on becoming heated in the journal, the volatile 
parts go off as vapors, making it dangerous to examine a journal or 
any other part with an open light. In order that a mineral oil should 
be a good lubricant, it should not flash under 300° F.; should not 
give off more than 5 per cent, of volatile matter at 140° F. in twelve 
hours; should be free from grit; and should contain no free acids or 
alkalies. * 

To determine the flash test accurately, an instrument too compli¬ 
cated for the use of the ordinary manufacturer is required; but he 
may, for his purpose, approximately determine the same by pouring 
the oil in a flat dish, which is placed on a plate containing dry sand, 
to which heat is applied (so as not to apply the heat to the oil directly), 
thus causing a gradual heating of the oil. A thermometer is then 
inserted some distance from the bottom of the dish, and the rise of the 
temperature noted. A lighted taper is then moved over the surface of 
the oil, care being taken not to touch it. If the vapors given off by 
the oil flash below 300° F., the oil is to be condemned, and not used 
as a lubricant. 

To determine the amount of volatile matter in an oil, the sample 
must be carefully weighed in a fine scale and then exposed to a temper¬ 
ature of 140° F. for ten or twelve hours; then cooling it, reweigh it. 
The loss in weight will be the amount of volatile matter given ofl in 
that time. If the loss be more than five per cent, the oil should not 
be used. 

In order to determine the amount of solid foreign matter, such as 
grit in oil, a sample very near the bottom of the barrel (as the greater 


22 


gravity of the solid material will cause it to gravitate to the bottom) 
should be taken and placed between two clean glass plates and then 
rapidly rubbed together, when the grit will at once be detected. 

Acids or alkalies in oil may readily be detected through litmus 
paper. If blue litmus paper is dipped into an oil containing acids, it 
will be colored red, while red litmus paper is turned blue when dipped 
into an oil containing alkalies. Any oil giving an acid or strong alka¬ 
line reaction should be condemned. 

Mineral oils sometimes give acid reactions, not from any decompo¬ 
sition of the compound, but from the sulphuric acid used in the pro¬ 
cesses of manufacturing it, which has been imcompletely neutralized 
with caustic soda. If the amount of soda has been too small, an 
excess of acid remains; while in the presence of an excess of soda, a 
residual amount of soda will remain, which also has a bad influence 
f on the metal bearings. 

A test for sulphuric acid can readily be made by mixing a sample 
of the oil with water, and after well shaking it, allowing it to stand 
until the oil separates from the water, which is then poured off. On 
account of its hydroscopic properties the sulphuric acid will have 
united with the water. If now a solution of a barium compound be 
added to the water, a white precipitate of sulphate of barium will at 
once be caused, if sulphuric acid be present in the oil. In order to 
make the test sure, as there are other acids which throw down a white 
precipitate, the precipitate must be treated with strong nitric or hydro¬ 
chloric acid, and if it remains unchanged, sulphuric acid is contained 
in the oil. 

If the litmus paper shows the presence of alkalies, these may be 
tested by treating the oil with water, as before described, then evapo¬ 
rating the solution to dryness, and placing the residue in the colorless 
flame of a Bunsen burner. Sodium will give an intensely yellow 
flame, if potassium be present a beautiful violet flame will be produced. 

Adulterations of animal oil or mineral oil may be detected by adding 
concentrated sulphuric acid, when the animal oil will be charred, forming 
black rings in the sample. Vegetable or animal oils can also be detected 
by adding an alkali to the sample, thus causing these to saponify; as 
mineral oils have not the property of saponification. Oils are fre¬ 
quently adulterated with cotton seed oil, which is prone to ignite waste 
spontaneously. 


23 


SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 

Numerous fires are caused by the so-called phenomenon of the spon¬ 
taneous combustion of waste. Spontaneous combustion of oily rags 
or waste is caused by a rapid absorption of oxygen from the air. Oils 
which have a great avidity for oxygen being the chief causes. By a 
number of experiments, it has been shown that when vegetable or ani¬ 
mal oils contain one third or over mineral oil, they will not ignite 
waste impregnated with them, spontaneously. 

I have not time enough this evening to go into a lengthy discussion 
of spontaneous combustion and its causes, but must refer you to my 
work on “ Spontaneous Combustion,” which will shortly appear, in 
which this branch of the subject is treated in detail. I will merely 
give you the experiments of Dr. James Young, which are before you. 

TEMPERATURE OF CHAMBER FROM 130° F. TO 170° F. 


Boiled linseed oil on cotton ignited in. 1£ hours. 

Baw “ “ “ 4 

Lard “ “ “ 4 

Colza “ “ “ 6 “ 

Olive “ “ “ 5 “ 

Seal oil and mineral oil, equal parts on cotton would not ignite. 

TEMPERATURE OF CHAMBER FROM 180° F. TO 200° F. 

Colza oil on wool ignited in. 6 hours. 

Olive oil on cotton “ . 2 “ 

Olive oil on wool “ . 7 “ 

Seal oil on wool “ . 3 “ 

Whale oil on jute “ . 9 “ 

Whale oil on cotton “ . 3 “ 

Cotton seed oil on wool “ . “ 


The following were not ignited by twenty-four hours’ exposure in 
the hot air chamber: 

Olive oil and mineral oil, equal parts on cotton. 

Colza oil and 20 per cent, mineral oil on wool. 

Seal and mineral oil, equal parts, on wool. 

Whale and mineral oil, equal parts, on jute. 

Cotton seed oil and 20 per cent, mineral oil on wool. 

And the following table showing the results of the experiments of 
J. J. Coleman: 














24 


Cotton waste saturated with whale oil, 
Cotton waste saturated with olive oil... 
Olive oil and 20 per cent,, mineral oil.... 


Entered into 
combustion after 


At a temperature 
of 


3 

4 
8 


hours. 

a 


165° C. 
177° C. 
177° C. 


Mineral and olive oil, equal parts, no change after 
lapse of 26 hours, after 12 hours, temperature 95° C 


Wool waste and seal oil. 

Wool waste and whale oil. 

Wool waste and cotton seed oil. 

Wool waste and olive oil. 

Wool waste and refined rape oil.. 

Wool waste and crude rape oil. 

Wool waste and cotton seed oil with 20 per cent, 
mineral oil; seal and mineral oil, equal parts: 
olive and mineral oils, equal parts, unaltered 
after lapse of 26 hours. 

Jute waste with whale oil. 

Jute waste with whale oil and mineral oil, equal 
parts, unchanged after 26 hours. 


3 ‘ 
3 ‘ 
5 ‘ 
7 ‘ 


6 • 
8 ‘ 


194° C. 
188° C. 
178° C. 
177° C. 
177° C. 
163° C. 


180° C. 


I am at present engaged with a number of experiments in sponta¬ 
neous combustion, which I hope will, by the apparatus used for experi¬ 
menting, prove more accurate than those formerly made with cruder 
apparatus. 

[A large drawing of the apparatus was shown.] 

The figure before you illustrates the device. Inside of the upper 
half of a strong metallic box, divided in two by means of a metallic 
partition, a wire cage containing the material saturated with the oil to 
be experimented with is placed. The wire box is surrounded by an 
air space on all sides, being, for this purpose, placed on legs, so as not 
to be in direct contact with the metallic surface of the partition. The 
lower half of the subdivided box is connected with a small boiler in 
which steam is generated (by means of a Bunsen burner), and the 
steam entering the lower half of the box produces an equalized tempe¬ 
rature in the upper division, while the material to be experimented 
with, is surrounded and submitted to the action of the air on all sides. 
A thermometer is inserted in the upper partition, by means of which 
the exact temperature in it may be noted. In order to increase the 
temperature to any desired degree, the steam which passes through a 
strong pipe from the boiler to the lower half of the box, may, in its 
passage bb heated to any desired temperature by applying a Bunsen 























25 


burner to the pipe. In order that the rise of temperature in the mass 
before ignition may be noted, and also the exact time when ignition 
has set in, a number of thermostats, set for various temperatures, are 
placed in the mass experimented with. These, as well as a conductor 
with a fusible solder link in it, form electric circuits, and are connected 
with electric clocks. As soon as the temperature corresponding to 
each thermostat is reached, the contact is broken, the clock stopped, 
and the interval between starting the experiment and this time can be 
noted, while the time of ignition of the mass is indicated by the 
stopping of the clock placed in the circuit containing the fusible solder 
joint. That the amount of humidity (which plays an important role 
in the spontaneous ignition of waste) may be varied, a small steam 
boiler, like the one described in the explosion apparatus, is connected 
with the upper chamber, and any desired quantity of steam may be 
blown in the same, and the humidity of the contained air altered at 
will. 

I before spoke of the importance of the microscope in regard to 
testing textile processes, I will now show you a series of microscopic 
slides thrown on the screen, greatly enlarged. Fine fibres, which 
ordinarily are hardly visible to the naked eye, will be seen projected 
on the screen four, and on the rear wall eighteen inches in diameter. 
This is accomplished by means of Mr. Holman’s excellent lantern, a 
one-tenth immersion lens being used (the object and the lens being 
both immersed in glycerine). The entire light of a large electric arc 
lamp being concentrated through a small aperture not much larger than 
the head of a pin, and thrown on the screen. 

The following fibres were then shown on the screen: 

1. Cotton fibre fresh from bale. 

2. Cotton from bale dyed with analine black. 

3. White carded on flat cards. 

4. Gray 1 and 2 mixed, carded on flat cards. 

5. Gray 1 and 2 mixed, carded on worker and stripper cards. 

6. White (3) spun in three thread loosely. 

7. No. 3 dyed light blue spun in 3 loosely. 

8. No. 3 dyed deep blue spun in 3 loosely. 

9. No. 3 badly dyed red, spun in 3 loosely. 

10. Sea Island spun white in six cord, tight. 

11. Sea Island deep blue in six cord, tight. 

12. Sea Island badly dyed red in six cord, tight. 


/ 


26 


13. Flax (raw fibre). 

14. Jute (fibre). 

15. Sheeps wool donskoi. (The scale-like structure was shown with 
great clearness and size.) 

16. Silk fibre reeled and dyed. 

17. Fabric (silk poplin) wool, silk and linen. 

18. Fabric (all silk). 

19. Wool waste. 

20. Extract of wool. 

21. Silk noils. 

\ 


27 


MILL ARCHITECTURE.* 

The first principle in architecture, and foremost in buildings intended 
for manufacturing purposes, is utility; and all other considerations are 
subservient to it. The elements of Vitruvius, Firmitas, Utilitas , 
Venustas, stability, utility, beauty still hold good. That mill building 
is the best which is best suited for its purpose, and that architect is most 
expert, who exactly knows what changes in his plans are required for 
every department of manufacture. I, of course, do not mean to say 
that a mill should be erected in bad proportions u a hideous mass of 
stone, an eyesore to mankindon the contrary an architect shows his 
superior skill if he, notwithstanding the small amounts usually allotted 
to decorative purposes, and the fetters which that tyrant utility places 
on him, is still able to erect an evenly proportioned well looking build¬ 
ing. The higher a building is, the better should be its construction. 
The simplest of all rules of building, to construct a building safely and 
solidly, is frequently neglected. The great principle in fire construc¬ 
tions is to divide the building into numerous parts, and then to con¬ 
struct these parts in such a manner and of such a material that a fire 
originating in any one part may be restricted to it. The main great 
divisions into which a manufacturing place is divided are the stories. 
It then becomes our problem to construct each story so that a fire start¬ 
ing in one, may be restricted to that story; so that smoke, fire and 
water used to extinguish the flames, may not harm other stories and 
their contents. To arrive at this result there must be no openings in 
the floors; that is, the elevators and stairways must be outside of the 
main building, and belt and other openings must not break the floors. 
In order to accomplish this we must place stairways and elevators in 
separate stairway and elevator houses, the walls of which should be of 
sound brick and of sufficient thickness. The walls should only be 
broken by the doors leading into the separate stories. These doors should 
be iron-lined on both sides, and should be self-closing (either by a 
spring or weight) the doors being held open by a piece of fusible solder, 
which melts at any considerable rise of temperature. 

The practice of putting in wooden sills, and lining them on top with 


* A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, December 17, 1884. 



28 


sheet iron, is to be deprecated, as the woodwork of the adjoining floors 
forms a juncture with the wooden sill, and a fire will be transmitted 
underneath the iron. The elevator openings in the elevator house 
should be self-closing so that a double security—the elevator doors and 
the doors leading into the main building—may be had. Especial care 
should be taken to extend the walls of the stairway and elevator house 
through the roof of the main building, thus cutting the trussing and 
timbering of the roofs, so that a fire may not be transmitted through 
the woodwork of the roof. A good-sized ventilator should be placed 
over the elevator house, so that in case of fire the smoke may escape 
through this—like a chimney—thus making it easier for firemen to see 
and work, and for employes to escape from the building; this is of so 
much importance that the Philadelphia Fire Underwriters’ Tariff 
Association has made it a requirement in hotel buildings. Great care 
must be taken to keep the bottom of elevator houses free from waste 
and rubbish as this by igniting either spontaneously, or by a burning 
object being thrown into it, has caused 'many fires. The safest con¬ 
struction for a stairway house is that used at the Ontario Mills, of the 
Arrott Steam Power Mill Company, in which the stairway house is 
entirely cut off from the main mill by blank coped walls without any 
direct communication with the mill, the communication between the 
mill and the stairway house being effected by means of iron porches on 
the outside of every story. 


FLOORS. 

The safest floor, which has for a long time, been used in fire-proof 
construction, is one consisting of brick arches, sprung between iron 
girders. In order to be of practical value, the spans must not be too 
large, as iron, which is an excellent conductor, soon warps by un¬ 
equal expansion in case of fire, and is apt to throw out the intervening 
arches. When spans are large, the intervening arches readily drop out 
of the girders which hold them, and thus entire buildings, which were 
considered fire-proof have been totally destroyed. Care must, there¬ 
fore, be taken to cover all exposed iron surfaces with a poor conductor 
of heat. 

A construction much used in France, wdiich has proved successful 
in many cases, is an iron girder with concrete arches, the arches being 
formed by means of moulds and held together with tie rods until dry. 
When good concrete dries, it becomes as hard as stone, and being an 


29 


excellent non-conductor of heat, when properly erected, so as to sur¬ 
round the entire iron work, keeps the iron from becoming heated and 
and warping. 

Iron girders have also been used in conjunction with terra cotta, and 
with the so-called terra cotta lumber. Terra cotta lumber is a material 
manufactured from clay and saw-dust. The clay being mixed with 
saw-dust is formed into the required shape, then dried, and burned 
in a kiln; the organic part is destroyed, and a porous mass remains 
which may be worked with a chisel like lumber. Tests which have 
been made with this material in New York have proved very satis¬ 
factory. 

[A number of slides were then shown, illustrating the manner in 
which these different materials are used and erected,] 

A concrete floor, when made with good cement, is, next to a brick 
arched floor, the best known. This substance forms into one solid hard 
rock-like mass, and those who have seen the works in France, where 
entire churches and aqueducts have been built with it, will no longer 
doubt its efficiency. It may be well remembered how at the great fire 
of the Jayne building, at Philadelphia, an ordinary mortar floor saved 
the second stoiy. The problem then is, “ How can we construct a 
cheap, light and effectual floor ?” 

A solid three-inch plank floor, laid flat, tongued and grooved, with 
one and a quarter inch flooring boards on top arranged for flooding, is 
the usual manner in which the floors of mills are now laid. These can 
be much improved if, between the plank and flooring boards, a layer 
of good mortar or concrete is inserted, making an excellent, slow’ burn¬ 
ing floor. Asbestos paper, or better the thicker asbestos bill board, is 
sometimes used with good effect, between the flooring boards and plank; 
although it has been claimed by some that the asbestos is hydroscopic 
and attracts the moisture from the flooring, causing the boards to rot. 
I have never experimented to any extent with this material, and cannot 
therefore, express an opinion on its merits or demerits. 

All floors should be arranged for flooding. This is accomplished by 
raising all sills and other openings through which water may escape. 
A floor arranged for flooding, when otherwise well laid, is one of the 
best means for restricting a fire from extending from one room to an¬ 
other, for, as soon as the fire appliances, such as sprinklers, hose, etc., are 
turned on, there is, in a very short time, a pond of an inch or an inch 
and a half deep formed on the floor, which prevents the floor from 


30 


igniting ; at the same time, a rise in temperature vaporizes the water 
on the floor, causing the formation of steam, which tends to extinguish 
the fire. 

We are now fairly well protected from fire, smoke and water from 
above, how then are we to protect the wooden ceiling in case of a fire 
from below? The simplest but costly method would be to iron-line 
all wood work; another would be to cover the wood work by a so- 
called fire-proof solution. I have experimented with all solutions 
which I could ascertain; but as I have not time to go into details on 
this part of the subject I must refer you to a series of articles in the 
Spectator in which I described the results of my experiments. 

It is well known, that several preparations exist which render wood 
mpervious to heat, and, at the same time, increase its durability. Some 
of the solutions have been tried on a large scale, and have proved 
themselves successful wherever used. Although these measures are 
cheap, and their success demonstrated, they have, with few exceptions, 
as for example at Frankfort-on-the-Main, the Hof Theater at Berlin, 
and several German manufactories, not been employed. Perhaps the 
general public will, in view of those frequently recurring catastrophies, 
at last comprehend that even the retardation of the combustion of 
wood-work would be of inestimable value in securing immunity from 
fire, and that the spreading of flames w T ould be greatly retarded if, 
instead of burning rapidly, as dry wood will, it slowly chars into coal. 
The nature of wood makes it an easy matter to change it into a state 
frequently, though incorrectly, called fire-proof! On account of its 
porosity, a solution applied to its surface sinks deeply into its pores, 
thereby attaining a firm hold, and on account of its rigidity exposes 
the covering to abrasion only. Care should be taken where such solu¬ 
tions have been used, to replenish them, from time to time, so as to keep 
the wood entirely covered. 

Asbestos paint is a clean and excellent coating for wood, or better 
still, the thicker asbestos concrete. These substances act like true 
paints, adhere tightly to the wood, give protection against high tem¬ 
peratures, and do not readily rub or chip off. It has but one objec¬ 
tion ; that is, its solubility in water; it cannot be used in places exposed 
to the action of water, but for most interior purposes this is no material 
objection. Great care must be taken in purchasing this article and 
should always be tested before being used, as so much of the so-called 
“ asbestos paint” which is sold is entirely worthless. 


31 


Ordinary whitewash is a cheap and excellent coating against fire. 
It adheres tightly to the wood, impregnating it to a certain extent and 
when frequently replenished will form an excellent coating. 

Wood, impregnated with ammonium sulphate, transforms it into a 
condition which has frequently, but incorrectly been termed “ fire¬ 
proof.” Ammonium sulphate keeps the wood from burning with a 
flame, and only those parts which come in direct contact with fire are 
charred,but the parts in contact with flames, even in charring, will not 
transmit the fire any further. Numerous experiments which I have 
made with ammonium sulphate, have, in every instance, proved suc¬ 
cessful ; even at the severe fire of a large chemical works where parts 
of the wood impregnated with this substance, in direct contact with 
the flames, were charred, and adjacent parts remained intact. 

When ceilings are plastered, this should be done with wire netting 
and the plaster laid on it, especial care being taken that the netting 
follows the outlines of the ceiling closely, so that no hollow spaces 
occur. The great principle is to avoid all hollow spaces, between 
which dirt may accumulate and fire travel. The so-called “ sealed ” 
ceilings, that were formerly in vogue, should always be avoided. 

GIRDERS. 

Girders should be solid. When it is necessary to use compound 
girders, they should be tightly bolted together, so as to leave no inter¬ 
vening spaces. In storehouses, etc., where there is but little vibration, 
girders may be inserted in the wall by placing them either on brackets 
or a short distance into the wall with bevelled edges, without any 
further anchoring. In mills, where the amount of vibration is great, 
Woodbury advises to securely bind the beam to the wall by embed¬ 
ding in the masonry a flat cast-iron plate with a transverse fin upon 
each side near the end, one to secure the plate in the wall and the other 
in a groove across the under side of the beam, firmly secured by wedges 
driven in at each side of the fin. The bricks in the wall for about five 
courses above the beam should be laid dry, and the upper edge of the 
beam at the end slightly rounded and an air space being provided at 
each side of the beams. 

Under no consideration should the old-fashioned anchorage of fasten¬ 
ing the girder on the outside of the wall with a large anchor plate be 
used. As when the beams burn through the leverage brought to bear 
on the wall will overturn it. 


32 


[Numerous slides were here shown, illustrating the different modes 
of anchorage and the construction of girders.] 

WALLS. 

Brick is the best material for fire construction. It stands long after 
granite has disintegrated and marble has been burnt into lime. Iron 
fronts are to be deprecated, and especially such shells of iron as are 
frequently erected, without even a brick filling. Sandstones when 
the sand particles are held together by a good binding material are 
serviceable, but those in which the sand particles are held together by 
lime should not be used in building. Granite is a very poor stone for 
fire construction, as its inter-molecular spaces contain water, which, on 
being heated vaporizes into steam, causing the disintegration of the 
granite. Marble is also a poor material to use, as, on becoming heated, 
it is decomposed, carbonic acid and burnt lime being formed. For 
this reason, lintels over doors, windows, etc., should never be made of 
marble, granite, or poor sandstones. Preferably, a brick arch should 
be sprung. Good brick buildings have frequently been destroyed by 
having poor stone lintels over driveways and so on, which were de¬ 
stroyed by fire, causing the falling of the brick wall. Where further 
ornamentation is required, terra-cotta ornaments may be used; these 
are now manufactured in all shapes and varieties. 

CORNICES. 

Where cornices are used, these should be of brick or terra-cotta. 
Under no circumstances should “ wood-boxed” cornices be used, as these 
transmit the fire from one part of the building to the other, and for 
this reason, even hollow metal cornices are objectionable, as they form 
flues along which the flames travel. 

COLUMNS. 

The best column to stand in case of fire is a good hard wood column, 
without taper, bored near the top and bottom so as to prevent dry rot, 
lined with sheet iron or any other metal, or covered with a good pro¬ 
tecting substance. Of all columns, those of exposed cast iron are the 
poorest. These, on even a slight rise of temperature, readily disinte¬ 
grate, especially when water is poured upon them. Wrought iron, on 
being exposed to high temperatures, expands and warps. Exposed 


33 


iron, therefore, is the most untrustworthy of all materials for column 
construction. 

In order to protect iron columns from surrounding temperatures 
numerous devices have been devised to cover them with non-con¬ 
ductors. The columns constructed by Mr. Wight, of Chicago, are 
excellent for this purpose. Terra-cotta lumber has been used for this 
purpose, as well as plaster and mortar. Ordinary lime mortar or con¬ 
crete is preferable to a gypsum composition, as this readily corrodes 
the iron. Care must be taken to surround all parts of columns ex¬ 
posed to abrasion, such as the base with a hood of wood. 

[Numerous illustrations of improved columns were then shown.] 

ROOFS. 

There is no part of a building which is put to such a severe wear 
and strain as the roof; being, at certain times of the year, exposed to 
high temperatures on the inside, and to very low temperatures on the 
outside. A good roof should be of three inch plank, tightly fastened 
together, protected on the inside with sheet iron or other metal, asbestos 
concrete, or with a wire netting tightly fastened on, so as to leave no 
hollow spaces, and the plastering placed on this; a good metal cover¬ 
ing being placed on the outside with nails counter-sunk and stopped 
with putty. Slate makes a poor covering, as by a rise in temperature 
it readily disintegrates. 


FIRE DOORS. 

There are few parts in fire construction which are of so much im¬ 
portance, and generally so little understood, as a fire door. Instances 
of the faulty construction of these, even by good builders and archi¬ 
tects, may daily be seen. Iron doors over wooden sills, with the floor¬ 
ing boards extending through from one building to the other, are 
common occurrences. We frequently find otherwise good doors hung 
on to wooden jambs by ordinary screws. Sliding doors are frequently 
hung on to wood work, and all attachments are frequently so arranged 
that they would be in a very short time destroyed by fire, and cause 
the door to fall. In case of fire, a solid iron door offers no resistance 
to warping. In an iron-lined door, on the contrary, the sheet iron, 
which tends to warp, is resisted by the interior wood, and when this 
burns into charcoal, it still resists all warping tendencies. I have seen 
even heavily braced solid iron doors warped and turned after a fire, 

3* 


34 


having proved themselves utterly worthless. It is needless to say that 
when wooden doors are lined, they should be lined on both sides; but 
frequently we find so-called fire-proof doors lined on one side only. 

Good doors are frequently blocked up with stock and other material, 
so that in case of fire they could not be closed without great exertion, 
or they have been allowed to get out of order, so that in case of fire 
they are useless. This has been so common that it has given rise to the 
jocular expression of insurance men, when they are told that a fire door 
exists between two buildings, “ Warranted to be open in case of fire.” 
The strictest regulations should exist in regard to closing the fire doors 
nightly. Frequently we find that although the fire door, and its 
different parts, are entirely correct, there are other openings in the wall 
which would allow the fire to travel from one building to the other, 
such as unprotected belt and shaft holes. That a fire door may be 
effective, it must be hung to the only opening in that wall. 

The greatest care must be exercised to keep joists from extending 
too far into the wall, so as not to touch the joists of the adjacent build¬ 
ing, which would transmit the flames from one building to the other in 
case of fire. A good stone sill should be placed under the door, and 
the floor thereby entirely cut. Sills should be raised about one and a 
half inches above the level of the floor, in order to accomplish the 
necessary flooding of the same. If stock must be wheeled from one 
building to the other, the sill can readily be bevelled on either side of 
the wall, allowing the wheels to pass readily over it. Lintels should • 
consist of good brick arches. When swinging doors are used, they 
should be hung on good iron staples, well walled into the masonry, 
and the staples so arranged that the door will have a tendency to close 
by its own weight. The door should consist of two layers of good one 
and a quarter inch boards, nailed crosswise, well nailed together and 
braced, and then covered with sheet iron nailed on, or if of sheet tin, 
flanged, soldered and nailed. Particular care should be taken to insert 
plenty of nails, not only along the edge of the door, but crosswise in 
all directions. I have seen cases, in which nails had only been placed 
along the edges, where the entire covering had been ripped off through 
the warping tendencies of the sheet iron. 

The hinges on these doors should be good strap hinges, tightly fast¬ 
ened to the door by bolts extending through it, and secured by nuts 
on the other side. Good latches, which keep the door in position 
when closed, should always be provided. In no case should the door 


35 


be provided with a spring lock, which cannot be freely opened, as 
employes might thereby be confined to a burning room. 

Sliding doors should be hung on good wrought iron run-ways, fast¬ 
ened tightly into the wall. Wooden run-ways, iron lined, which we 
frequently see, are no good, as the charring of the wood in the inte¬ 
rior causes them to weaken and the doors to drop. Run-ways should 
be on an incline, so that the door when not held open will close by 
itself. Care must be taken to have a stop provided in the run-way, so 
that the doors may not, as I have frequently seen them, overun the 
opening which it is to protect. Doors should overlap the edges of the 
openings on all sides. Large projecting jambs should never be used. 

All doors contained in “ fire-walls ” should have springs or weights 
attached to them, so as to be at all times closed. Fire doors can be 
shut automatically by a weight, which is released by the melting of a 
piece ef very fusible solder employed for this purpose. So sensitive 
is this solder that a fire door has been made to shut by holding a lamp 
some distance beneath the soldered link and holding an open handker¬ 
chief between the lamp and link. Though the handkerchief was not 
charred, hot air enough had reached the metal to fuse the solder and 
allow the apparatus to start into operation. 

These solders are alloys more fusible than the most fusible of their 
component metals. A few of them are—Wood’s alloy consisting of: 


Cadmium. 1 to 2 parts. 

Tin. 2 “ 

Lead.;. 4 “ 

Bismuth. 7 to 8 “ 

This alloy is fusible between 150 ° and 159 ° Fahr. 1 The fusible 
metal of d’Arcet is composed of: 

Bismuth. 8 parts. 

Lead. 5 “ 

Tin. 3 “ 


It melts at 173-3°. We can, therefore, by proper mixture, form a 
solder which will melt at any desirable temperature. 

Numerous devices for closing doors automatically have been con- 
constructed, all depending upon the principle of the fusible solder 
catch. 

[Various automatic doors were then explained with stereopticon 
views.] 









36 


CONSTRUCTION OF PICKER HOUSES. 

The proper construction of that hazardous part of a mill, the picker 
house, is of the utmost importance. Frequently we find picker houses, 
otherwise well constructed, with some fault in them which then endan¬ 
gers the whole. Glass transoms above iron doors, between the main 
mill and the picker house, may sometimes be seen, while large belt 
holes in the protecting wall are very common. These will readily 
convey fire from the picker room to the mill. It is difficult to pro¬ 
tect belt openings by iron slides. It is therefore better to have power 
conveyed from the mill to the picker room through shafting. When 
journal boxes are set in the wall, but small apertures are required. 

A frequent mistake in picker houses is to place the windows in the 
wall of the main mill above the picker house, unprotected by iron or 
iron-lined shutters. Picker houses are generally one story high, the 
flames striking upwards being thereby communicated to the mill. The 
ventilators and skylights in the roof of the picker house increase the 
danger from these sources. Windows in the picker house, facing the 
mill, may also frequently be found. These, if possible, should be dis¬ 
pensed with. If they are absolutely necessary, good iron-lined shut¬ 
ters should be provided, which must in all cases be arranged to close 
from the outside. Frequently enlosed gangways connect the picker 
house with the main mill. These should be constructed of corrugated 
iron, with good iron-lined doors at either end. If these are not 
arranged to close automatically in case of fire, they should be fixed so 
that they may be closed from the outside without entering the gang¬ 
way. A great mistake, frequently made, is to store stock in the gang¬ 
way, or allow waste and other rubbish to accumulate in the same. In 
case of fire, this will be a conductor for the flames to extend from one 
building into the other, before time may be found to close the fire 
doors. 

Brick, stone or cement floors should be used in the picker house. 
Wooden window jambs and casings should not be used; while sub¬ 
stantial iron, or, better still, iron-lined shutters, for solid iron shutters 
have the demerits of iron doors, should be hung over all openings, 
extending beyond the edges of the windows. A shutter should be 
constructed like an iron door^ hung on good iron staples built into the 
wall, and always on the outside of the building. Shutters hung on 
wooden window casings will, of course, fall as soon as the wood work 


37 


is destroyed. Iron shutters should never be placed on the inside, as 
it is against human nature to remain inside of a burning building to 
close shutters. 

CARD ROOMS. 

The card room should be as large and well ventilated as possible. 
The ceilings should be high, and as few projections contained in the 
same as possible, as these will cause the fly to settle on them. The 
card room should be wide enough to allow the placing of the cards in 
sets side by side, with sufficient space between the sets to allow the 
cleaner to pass around them freely. 

TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 

All driving fixtures should be contained in separate houses, con¬ 
structed like a stairway or elevator house, cut off from the mill by 
coped fire walls, as a fire will be carried from story to story through 
belt openings and boxes. Particular attention should be given to belt 
boxes, where they do exist, to keep them at all times scrupulously 
clean from waste fly and so on. Belt boxes should be provided with 
a good supply of automatic sprinklers. Objections have been raised 
to sprinklers by some, for the reason that should they be opened by 
accident the belts would be damaged by water. Mr. Edward Atkin¬ 
son suggested that the belts should be enclosed in a glass chamber, and 
that automatic sprinklers should be placed outside of the glass. This 
arrangement, I understand, has worked well in practice. 

All dangerous journals throughout a mill should be provided with 
automatic alarms, which give an alarm as soon as a journal becomes 
dangerously hot. One of the best, the Journal Thermostat of Whita¬ 
ker, consists of a U-shaped glass tube, with arms of equal length, one 
of which is closed. The left arm contains a small amount of a vola¬ 
tile hydro-carbon liquid, and the remainder is filled with mercury. 
When the temperature of the journal rises beyond a certain point, the 
hydro-carbon is vaporized, and forces out the mercury, which, in col¬ 
lecting in the receptacle below, closes the electric circuit, which gives 
the alarm. 

[Various slides were shown for further illustration.] 

HEATING. 

The old primitive method of heating by stoves is but little found in 
the better class of mills. Where these are used, care should be taken 


t 


38 

that they are placed on metal, with good stove pipes, passing into chim¬ 
neys, the stove pipes being tightly wedged into the wall, so as to keep 
them from disengaging and allowing the sparks to fall into the room. 
Under no consideration should stove pipes pass out of windows. 

The safest system of heating is by hot water. In this case, the 
heat is produced by radiation from pipes filled with hot w r ater, the 
same being heated in a boiler, preferably outside of the mill. 

Steam is usually employed for heating in mills. Special care must 
be taken to have the pipes free from wood work, and away from all 
places where dust, dirt, waste and so on may accumulate. Steam pipes 
should be hung along the ceiling, about 24 inches belo\w it, in prefer¬ 
ence to the old fashion, along the sides of the room, where stock and 
waste is frequently piled. The theory, so frequently advanced, that, 
if pipes be hung below the ceiling, the same amount of heat cannot 
be obtained as when they are hung along the sides, is erroneous. This 
table, which shows the results of a series of experiments made by Mr. 
C. J. Woodbury, demonstrates this fact. 

Hourly thermometrical observations were taken in a room, 75 x 400 
feet, supplied with five rows of steam pipes, against the walls near the 
floor, in the first instance, and in the second there were four rows of 
pipe around the room, two feet from the walls and hung the same dis¬ 
tance below the ceiling, requiring only three-quarters as much pipe as 
in the first instance. 


Mean Temperature of Hourly Readings. 


Degrees Fahrenheit. 


Thermometers hung in centre of room. 


Pipes at side. 
Dec. 29 to Jan. 


Sixteen inches from ceiling 

Midway. 

Sixteen inches from floor .... 


80*05° 

76*52° 

77*08° 


Average, 


77*88° 


Pipes elevated. 
5. Jan. 29 to Feb. 5. 


80*80° 
76*90° 
77*00° 


78*23° 


The reasons that steam pipes ignite wood are twofold. First, in case 
of superheated steam, we have a regular combustion going on; in the 
second case, with steam pipes containing steam, at the usual tempera¬ 
ture, we have a secondary phenomenon of spontaneous combustion. 














39 


In the latter case, the steam pipes slowly dry the wood, the contained 
moisture being vaporized, and at last the wood assumes a state resem¬ 
bling that of charcoal; it is then that the glowing or the combustion, 
well known in the case of charcoal takes place spontaneously. 

At a discussion of the French Academy, in 1879, this was brought 
out clearly. M. Cosson described an accident which had occurred in 
his laboratory a few days before. While the narrator was working in 
the laboratory, a portion of the boarding of the floor spontaneously 
took fire. The boards were in the vicinity of an air-hole, fed with 
warm air from a stove four metres away on the floor below. A simi¬ 
lar accident took place two years ago, and in consequence M. Cosson 
had the boards adjoining the air-hole replaced by a slab of marble. 
The boards which now ignited adjoined the marble. The heat to 
which the boards were subjected was, however, very moderate, being 
only that of warm air at 25°C. Nevertheless, M. Cosson said the 
wood had undoubtedly been slowly carbonized. Being thus rendered 
extremely porous, a rapid absorption of the oxygen of the atmosphere 
had resulted and sufficient caloric was thereupon produced to originate 
combustion. The danger thus disclosed, said M. Cosson, is one to 
which the attention of builders ought to be directed. In the instance 
in question, M. Cosson was able to extinguish the fire with a little 
water, as he was present and witnessed its beginning; but had it 
occurred at night, during his absence, it would undoubtedly have com¬ 
pleted its work of destruction. M. Fay6 stated that at Passy, a few 
days before, a similar case of spontaneous fire, due to the action of the 
warmth from the air-hole of a stove upon the wood work, had occurred 
at the house of one of his friends. 

Mr. C. C. Hine, editor of the Monitor , relates the following: “The 
Institute of Technology, at Boston, long ago decided upon the danger 
of steam pipes passing through and in contact with wood. It was 
shown that the wood, by being constantly heated, assumes the condi¬ 
tion, to a greater or less degree of fine charcoal, a condition the most 
favorable to spontaneous combustion. This is so important and inte¬ 
resting a point that we may be pardoned for enlarging upon it some¬ 
what in contrast to the brevity of the foregoing paragraphs. 

“ Steam was generated in an ordinary boiler and was conveyed there¬ 
from in pipes which passed through a furnace and thence into retorts 
for the purpose of distilling petroleum. Here the pipes formed exten¬ 
sive coils and then passed out, terminating at a valve outside the 


40 


building. To prevent the steam, when blown off, from disintegrating 
the mortar in an opposite wall, some boards were set up to receive the 
force of the discharge, and as often as the superheated steam was blown 
against them, the boards were set on fire! This occurred in an oil 
refinery in Pittsburg, Pennyslvania. 

“Some years since, while on a visit at the Institution for the Deaf 
and Dumb, in Illinois, of which an esteemed friend is principal, we 
called attention to the manner in which some steam coils were secured 
to wooden supports, and pronounced them unsafe. They were shown 
to be a thousand feet or so—as the pipes ran—from the boiler, and our 
caution only provoked a smile. The next year we visited at usual, 
and, upon taking the principal’s hand, he said—before exchanging 
salutations or inquiries—‘Come with me, I wish to show you some¬ 
thing/ and led the way to the room where, a year ago, his attention 
had been called to the steam pipe. ‘There/ said he, ‘examine that; I 
have been saving it for you since last winter; the coil fell down, and 
investigation showed that the screws had let go because the wood had 
been turned to charcoal and had no more strength to hold them.’ The 
experience was new to him, it may be old to some of our readers, but 
its introduction here will illustrate a fact which is now becoming an 
admitted one among those who have given this matter attention. 

“An experiment illustrating the effects of superheated steam was 
tried as follows: Steam was taken from an ordinary boiler through a 
pipe forty feet long. Ten feet from the farther end a collar of wood 
was fitted closely to the pipe; ten feet near the boiler a lighted kero¬ 
sene lamp was placed under the pipe. In ten minutes the wooden 
collar was on fire.” 


LIGHTING. 

Numerous fires have been caused by lamps in mills. These should 
be constructed of metal, and not glass, as the glass readily breaks. 
High test oils only, with a flash test of 150 degrees or over should be 
used. 

The watchman should burn lard oil in his lamp, which is safer than 
mineral oil. In order that he may not, by trimming his lamp in the 
mill cause fires, as has been the case, his lamp should be inclosed and 
provided with a lock and key, the key being fastened in some fire¬ 
proof room in the building, so that when the lamp burns poorly, the 


41 


watchman will have to return to the fire-proof room and trim and fix 
his lamp there, and not in the mill among the loose stock and material. 

In order to increase the safety of lamps, so-called safety lamps have 
been invented. These are glass lamps inclosed in metal cases, which 
protects the glass recepticle from breaking. Westland’s lamp has, 
experimentally, proved successful, although I have no further evidence 
of how it has worked in practice. This consists of a globe of glass, 
containing the oil, surrounded by a concentric sphere, containing water 
charged with carbonic acid gas under pressure. As soon, therefore, as 
the lamp is broken, carbonic acid gas is set free and the flames extin¬ 
guished. 

Gas is the general material yet used for illumination. Gas lights 
should be inclosed so as to keep stock from falling into the flames, and 
from igniting fine particles of dust and flies in card and picker rooms. 
Especial care must be taken to clean the tops of inclosed gas lights well 
before lighting up, as many fires have been caused from dirty inclosed 
lanterns In order to safely light up gas lights several devices have 
been constructed, among which are Mr. Whiting’s electric torch, in 
which the gas is lit by means of an electric spark. Another is a Ger¬ 
man device by Bodmer, by means of which an inclosed torch is pressed 
down over the gas jet and the gas in escaping is lighted. 

[Several of these devises were then shown with slides projected on 
the screen.] 

Gasoline vapor, or as frequently called, gasoline gas, is sometimes 
used. Where gasoline machines are used, the machines, especially the 
carboretting arrangement, must be placed at least fifty feet from all 
other buildings. The gas machine building should be on a piece of 
ground lower than the other buildings, so that the gasoline vapor which 
may escape, and which is heavier than air, may flow away from the 
buildings. Care must be taken to have all supply pipes descend 
towards the machine building, so that any vapor which may have 
condensed in its passage from the carboretter of the mill may flow back 
into the carboretter. Care must be taken to have a drip-cock attached 
to every jet, so that the pipes may be well emptied of gasoline before 
lighting the vapor. Gasoline vapor is extremely explosive and dan¬ 
gerous. 

Of late a new excellent gaslight has been introduced, the so-called 
Siemens’ Regenerative Burners. Care must be taken where these are 
erected, to have the ventilating flues, which carry off the products of 


42 


combustion, well constructed of metal, free from wood work, as these 
lamps give off a great amount of heat, and readily ignite wood work 
which is in contact with the ventilating flue. 

The electric light is daily coming more into use, and when properly 
installed is very safe. Daily tests should be made for grounds. Great 
care should be taken to have all wires properly insulated, all connec¬ 
tions in wires well made, the proper amount of cut-outs, switches and 
safety catches; and, where arc lights are used, take proper care of the 
glowing carbon points, which, in falling, have caused fires. One of the 
greatest hazards is caused by improper insulation, as moisture will cause 
an electric current to pass from one wire to another, especially through 
water which contains salts, such as lime, which it dissolves in passing 
through ceilings or walls. 

[Numerous illustrations of electric lights were shown, showing their 
hazards and how they can be safely installed.] 

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. 

Electricity is frequently caused by the friction of belts.on pulleys, a 
fact known in Germany for a long time, but first described in our country, 
I believe, by Mr. F. W. Whiting. This has been the cause of fires and 
should be guarded against by connecting all parts on which the elec¬ 
tricity accumulates with the ground by means of wires attached to the 
object and a gas, or preferably, a water pipe. This is one of the most 
prolific sources of fires in the heavy coating rooms of oil cloth factories, 
as the electric sparks readily ignite the benzine vapors present. In 
one of our largest Philadelphia works of this kind, the iron receiving 
racks were so charged with electricity that long sparks could be drawn 
from them, but since they have been properly “ wired/” not a trace of 
electricity is left in them. 


43 


MEANS FOR EXTINGUISHING FIRE.* 

INTRODUCTION. 

Before we can enter into a discussion and description of how to 
fight the phenomena of combustion we must understand a few pre¬ 
liminary facts. If we rapidly draw our hand through the surrounding 
space, we feel a certain amount of resistance. This resistance is due to 
a gaseous body which surrounds us on all sides, and which we term' 
air, a substance known to the ancients, who tried to weigh it. As for 
example, Aristotle filled a bladder and weighed it, then exhausted the 
air and reweighed the bladder, and actually believed he had thereby 
determined the weight of the atmosphere. It was not, however, until 
the advent of the experimental era under Galileo and Torricelli that 
its weight or pressure was determined. It was found at the level of 
the sea, to be about fifteen pounds to the square inch. 

This surrounding fluid consists of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen; 
not, however, chemically combined, but merely mixed in the propor¬ 
tion—in round numbers—of seventy-nine parts of nitrogen and twenty- 
one of oxygen. Nitrogen, which is fourteen times heavier (atomic 
weight) than hydrogen, is a gas entirely negative in its qualities; it 
does not support combustion, and its purpose in the air is merely to act 
as a diluting agent so as to make the effects of oxygen less violent. 
Oxygen, the great supporter of life and also the great destroyer in 
nature, is an odorless, colorless gas, sixteen times (15’95 atomic weight) 
as heavy as hydrogen. It and its combinations constitute the greater 
part of our earth. The crystalline rocks which consist of silicates 
combined with oxygen, contain from forty-four to forty-eight per cent, 
of oxygen. Water, which is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen, 
contains one part of oxygen to two parts of hydrogen. It is this 
element which causes all these phenomena which we ordinarily term 
combustion. Phenomena which it causes while ordinarily diluted with 
nitrogen (air) are greatly intensified when the element is pure; and 
even metals, such as iron and steel, when ignited in a globe filled with 
oxygen, burn with brilliant scintillations. 

We are now ready for the question, “What is combustion?” I 


* A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, January 9, 1885. 




44 


would define it as a chemical union of oxygen with some other element 
or elements, accompanied by an evolution of light and heat, while 
similar unions of other substances, not with oxygen directly, I will 
term “ chemical combination.” Substances which unite with oxygen 
are termed combustible substances, while oxygen is a supporter of com¬ 
bustion. These terms, although but relatively correct,—as combustion 
might be defined as an act of a chemical union accompanied by an 
evolution of light and heat—are for our purposes very convenient and 
will be retained throughout. 

We must, before entering into the subject under discussion, under¬ 
stand what is meant by the temperature of ignition or the ignition 
point. It has been found that before a substance can ignite (take fire) 
in either the air or oxygen, a certain temperature must be reached, and 
this necessary temperature is termed the ignition point or temperature 
of ignition. While for some substances this point is very low, for 
others it is extremely high, as, for example, nitrogen will only unite 
with oxygen at the intense heat of the electric spark; while phospho¬ 
rus burns slowly at 10°C. (50°F.), as may be noticed in the dark 
(phosphorescence), it does not burn brightly until heated to 60°C. 
(140°F.), and zinc ethyl and phosphuretted hydrogen ignite in the 
air at the ordinary temperature. 

But most bodies do not unite with the oxygen of the air rapidly 
enough at ordinary temperatures to produce light and heat, but must 
be heated for a production of active cumbustion. In the case of the 
decay of organic matter or the rusting of metals oxidation goes on 
slowly, producing heat, and the total amount of heat that a decaying log 
produces in the long time required for its destruction is exactly equal 
to the amount of heat produced by its rapid oxidation (burning) in a 
stove. We, therefore, distinguish between quick and slow combus¬ 
tion. 

The temperatures of different flames vary greatly. Bunsen found 
that the temperature of the flame of hydrogen burning in air is 
2,024 C C., temperature of a hydrogen flame burning in oxygen 2,844°C., 
carbonic oxide 1,997° when burning in air, and 3,003°C. when burn¬ 
ing in oxygen. 

In order to measure the quantity or strength of a material or force, 
we must have a measure or standard of comparison. The standard for 
the measurement of heat, if the expression be allowed, as heat is a 
force and not a material, is the “ thermal unit.,” the amount of heat 
required to raise the temperature of one cubic gramme of water one 


45 


degree Centigrade. This measure is now almost universally employed 
by scientists, although the old English caloric unit, the amount of heat 
required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, is yet 
sometimes employed. Two other units are also used; in Germany, 
the amount of heat required to raise one kilogramme of water one 
degree Centigrade is much used ; while the unit of one pound of water 
to one degree Centigrade is sometimes employed. 


COMBUSTION IN OXYGEN. 


One gramme of 

Thermal units. 

Observer. 

Charcoal. 

7,273 

Lavoisier. 

if 

7,167 

Dulong. 

if 

7,912 

Depretz. 

ii 

7,714 

Grassi. 

if 

8,080 

Favre and Silbermann. 

ii 

7,900 

Andrews. 

Diamond.. 

7,770 

Favre and Silbermann. 

Natural graphite. 

7,811 

ii <i 

Gas carbon. 

8,017 

ii ii 

Hydrogen. 

34,462 

ii ii 

ii 

33,808 

Andrews. 

ii 

34,180 

Thomsen. 

Sulphur. 

2,220 

Favre and Silbermann. 

ii 

2,307 

Andrews. 

Phosphorus. 

5,747 

ii 

Zinc. 

1,301 

ii 

Iron. 

1,576 

ii 

Tin. 

1,233 

ii 

Copper. 

602 

ii 

Marsh gas. 

13,063 

Favre and Silbermann. 

ii 

13,108 

Andrews. 

ii 

13,120 

Thomsen. 

Olefiant gas. 

11,858 

Favre and Silbermann. 

ii 

11,942 

Andrews. 

ii 

11,957 

Thomsen. 

Carbon monoxide.>. 

2,431 

Andrews. 

ii 

2,403 

Favre and Silbermann. 

ii 

2,385 

Thomsen. 

















































46 


Numerous experiments, made by different scientists, have proved 
beyond a doubt that a constant quantity of heat is given off when the 
same weight of the same substance burns to form the same products of 
combustion, r whether the combustion proceeds slowly or rapidly. Nu¬ 
merous measurements of the amount of heat disengaged by the combi¬ 
nation of different substances with oxygen have been made, of which 
those of Andrews, Favre, Julius Thomsen and Silbermann are the 
most correct. The above table compiled by Roscoe, shows the heat 
of combustion in thermal units for one gramme of substance burnt. 

WATER. 

Water was the first material employed to extinguish fire. One of 
the best materials and means for extinguishing fire are well-filled gal¬ 
vanized iron water-buckets. These should have conical bottoms, so 
that they can not be used for other purposes than those for which they 
are intended. They should be kept filled at all times. A very good 
method of keeping them filled is to appoint a special man for this 
purpose, and fine him one dollar for every bucket which is found 
empty. It should be the particular duty of the watchman to examine 
the buckets daily and report on their condition; and, in order to 
increase his surveillance, the money obtained for fines should be pre¬ 
sented to the watchman, whose vigilance in this respect will thereby be 
greatly increased. Reliable automatic devices are always preferable to 
means depending on human agency, and for this purpose the “ auto¬ 
matic electric low water alarm ” is highly recommended ; this is a device 
which sets an electric bell in the superintendent’s office into operation as 
soon as one quarter of the contents of a bucket evaporates, and continues 
to ring until the bucket is filled. Buckets should be of iron, not wood, 
as wooden buckets, when they are dry or partially empty, shrink and 
become leaky. They should be well covered, first, with a zinc solution, 
which is generally called galvanizing, and then with good tar or asphaltum 
paint, put on hot, which will cause buckets to last much longer than 
they otherwise would. The word “Fire” should be painted on them 
with large letters—red is to be preferred as that color can be seen best 
—so that one may know their purpose and readily discover them in 
case of emergency. All factories should have trained bucket brigades, 
as it is not easy to use a bucket properly. It seems an easy matter to 
pour water upon a burning substance; but when we consider that, in 
the majority of cases, it is impossible to reach the point of fire, and 




47 


that, therefore, water must be thrown from a distance, it is self-evident 
that it is quite an art to throw the contents of a bucket on the spot 
necessary, without spilling or wasting the greater part of it. In order 
to make a bucket brigade efficient, they should practice once or twice 
a week. Every room which contains buckets should contain large 
casks with wide opened tops, so that the buckets may be readily re¬ 
filled. I frequently find casks with the top so small that it is almost 
impossible to intrude the bucket into the opening and procure water, 
and it would be utterly impossible, in case of fire, when people are 
frightened to a craze. It is a notable fact that more than twice as 
many fires are exsinguished by buckets than by any other means. 
The importance of having factory buildings properly equipped with 
them is therefore self evident. 

PUMPS. 

The oldest and first-described fire pump is that described in the 
Spiritalia of Hero, 150 years B. C. 

[A slide showing this pump was projected on the screen.] 

One of the best and strongest pumps, in places where water power 
is used, is the French Rotary. Its chief merit lies in its great 
strength. Its operation is due to the displacement of water between 
the teeth of two coarse gears. Its construction is very simple. There 
are no weak and small parts which break ; no valves which require 
constant attention, while it is very durable and works out slowly. It 
should take its supply from the flume, and should be about 18 inches 
above the water level, so that it may not be flooded. Driving belts 
should not be used, as a fire will soon destroy these. In the same way 
bevel gears are objectionable, because they are apt to slide, causing the 
various parts to stick, and the pump to become worthless when most 
needed. Friction gears, when the pump is strongly erected, are per¬ 
haps best; although, when the heat becomes great, they become 
warped, but stand longer than any other arrangement. 

[A number of slides, showing the construction and the general ar¬ 
rangement of water-power pumps, were then shown.] 

STEAM FIRE PUMPS. 

The pre-requisite conditions in choosing steam fire pumps are, that 
they should be simple, strong, and, which is included in the foregoing, 
there should be as few small and weak parts as possible, as these are 


48 


apt to get out of order and break. All fire pumps should be supplied 
with a relief valve (which relieves excessive pressure), as when the 
pump is running at full head, hose is frequently bursted, and as it is 
often impossible to reach the pump during the fire, the hose with 
which it is connected becomes worthless when most needed, as was the 
case at the fire of a large chemical works a short time ago. A fire 
pump should be placed where it is least exposed to fires; preferably 
outside in a fire-proof compartment, so that the attendant may have 
access to the pump to the very last, and the pump may still work even 
if the entire remainder of the property be destroyed. 

[A number of slides, showing the general construction of the vari¬ 
ous fire pumps, were projected on the screen.] 

VERTICAL PIPES. 

I do not think much of the outside vertical, or, as they are some¬ 
times called, Palmieri pipes; which are run along the outside of 
buildings, extending to the roof; the intention being that, in case of 
fire, the Fire Department will attach the engine to the lower end 
and the hose to the connection oA the roof. It has, however, by ex¬ 
perience, been demonstrated that, with few exceptions, as in the case 
of a few very high buildings, firemen prefer to carry their hose on 
their ladders to the top of the building, and are, therefore, of little 
value in case of fire, as firemen will not use them. 

Inside stand-pipes or vertical pipes, on the contrary, are of great 
importance. These should be connected with tanks of large capacity 
or with good force pumps, so that strong pressures may be obtained in 
them at all times, as the pressures of the City Water Departments, 
especially on higher stories, are inadequate. We frequently, in our 
Philadelphia Specials, find vertical pipes connected with the City 
water supply, which, on being tested, will throw a stream of not more 
than ten or fifteen feet. Care should be taken to place all vertical 
pipes away from exposed positions. These pipes should never be 
placed along walls, exposed to the wind, as, in winter, the cold will 
cause the water to freeze and burst the pipes, the arrangement becom¬ 
ing worthless. They should always be placed in positions which will 
be least apt to be destroyed by fire, and which, in case of fire, will be 
least exposed to flames and smoke. Fire-proof stairway houses are 
well adapted for this purpose, as firemen in them are able to fight 
the fire until the last moment, as they know they still have a fire¬ 
proof way of retreat, and can, at any moment, protect themselves by 


49 


closing the fire doors which lead into the stairway house. Vertical 
pipes should be of ample size, so that the requisite amount of water 
can be drawn from them. A good pressure in it is the pre-requi¬ 
site of an efficient stand-pipe. 

[A number of slides were shown, explaining the various modes of 
erecting stand-pipes.] 


HYDRANTS. 

In the ordinary hydrant, the water is at all times contained in it. 

[This was shown and explained by a number of stereopticon views.] 

In order to keep the water from forcing into the upper portion of 
the hydrant, which is apt to deteriorate it, causing parts to corrode, 
several devices have been constructed, such as the Matthews’, and the 
Chapman hydrants, in which the water is turned on by valves in the 
lower end of the hydrants, which is, therefore, eliminated from the 
upper parts of the plugs. A similar construction is used for our ordi¬ 
nary fire plugs. The name, “ fire plug,” is derived from an English 
expression, and in its original appellation is entirely correct. An 
English plug is a device for reaching water, in the following manner : 
The main water supply, running along the street, is punched with 
holes at various parts, and these are closed by wooden plugs, tightly 
driven in. On top of these a box is fitted, which is filled with 
manure or straw, in order to keep the water from freezing. In 
case of fire, the fire department must first remove the manure or 
straw, knock out the wooden plug, and make connection with the 
opening, and pump the water from the pipe. Plugs of this kind are 
still used, to a certain extent! 

It was through the admirable labors of the father of a member of 
this Institute, Mr. Frederick Graeff, that plugs were first invented and 
introduced in our city and throughout the United States, and their 
introduction has now become general in every civilized country in the 
world. 

[A number of slides, illustrating the various hydrants, was shown.] 
VALVES. 

Only straight valves should be used for turning on water. Mr. 
Woodburv states he found, in .a number of experiments made by him 
at Holyoke some time ago, that a two-inch globe valve reduced the 
pressure from 80 to 40 pounds per square inch. 

4* 


50 


[This was further explained by means of slides projected on the 
screen.] 

A valve or hydrant which is not water-tight, on being closed by 
hand, without great effort, is to be deprecated, and should never be 
employed, as it is liable to break, on account of the excessive strains 
applied to certain parts when it is opened and closed. Jenkins’ and 
Chapman’s straightway valves can be recommended. 

[These were shown and explained by means of slides.] 

It is absolutely necessary that all valves in a factory should open in 
one direction only. I have frequently found that even the same 
factory contained valves which opened in different directions. It is no 
wonder, therefore, that mistakes are made, especially when people are 
highly excited as in case of fire. In order to overcome this difficulty, 
valves should be labelled with an arrow and the word “ open ” painted 
on it conspicuously, so that any person, even unacquainted with the 
valve, may be enabled to open it properly. It is an unfortunate coin¬ 
cidence that even among mechanics and engineers, the words right-hand 
and left hand valves do not signify the same. In some parts of the 
country the word “ right-hand ” signifies the motion of the hands of 
a clock, while in other districts, as used even by some persons in the 
same district, the term signifies the opposite. It would be well if 
conventions would take the matter in hand and settle the term once 
for all. 

Chapman’s gate, which was introduced some time ago, is a very good 
one, as it can be opened or shut by one turn of the hand to every 
inch diameter of the gate. For example, a six-inch gate is shut or 
opened by six turns of the hand wheel, etc. As further advantages 
for the gate are claimed, “that it opens in the natural manner, 
advancing stem, full opening, with the utmost quickness of motion, 
without water hammer.” 

[Several gates and methods of construction were then projected on 
the screen.] 

HOSE. 

I prefer unlined linen hose for inside use even to more expensive 
kinds. Woodbury states that twelve samples from different manu¬ 
facturers, weighing from three and three quarters to four ounces per 
foot, burst when new, at pressures of from 420 to 650 pounds per 
square inch. Several experiments made by myself, with similar hose, 


51 


gave even better results, bursting at pressures, between 415 and 670 
pounds per square inch ; but it is but fair to state that the best samples 
were furnished me for the express purpose of testing, and may, there¬ 
fore, have been especially strong. 

In order that a hose may remain in good condition, it must be kept 
dry, and should not be wound on reels. A hose, on a reel, after some 
time, on being unreeled, assumes a winding form similar to an Archi¬ 
medean screw, and when run off in a hurry, is apt to kink, and cut off 
the supply of water at times when it is most needed. Hose should be 
kept on a pin, and should be laid on with looping ends, as loose twine 
is frequently kept on a nail.. 

[The manner was then shown by a sketch on the board.] 

The pin should be protected with a round, broad saddle or back, so 
that the hose may not crack, as it will when hanging on too sharp an 
edge. If hung properly on a pin, it may be drawn off without the 
slighesf danger of kinking. 

It is absolutely necessary that uniform couplings should be intro¬ 
duced throughout, not only for regular fire departments, but also for 
factories. The old screw coupling labors under the serioug disadvantage 
that if the hose is not permanently attached to the hydrant, in the 
event of fire and excitement, it is difficult to attach the hose properly. 
For this purpose Jones’ patent coupling, which is now used in most of 
our public fire departments is excellent, as the hose may be quickly 
attached, even by excited persons. Care must, however, even in this 
simple coupling, be taken to press the joints together tightly, as com¬ 
plaints are often made by incompetent persons, that the joints leak. If 
they are put together properly, no leakage will occur. In the ordinary 
Jones’ coupling the rubber strip, which forms the tight joint, extends a 
short distance into the coupling, and therefore, to a certain extent, 
retards the flow of the water and reduces the pressure, it has been 
claimed by some as much as 20 per cent. Clay’s coupling, in which 
the rubber strip does not protrude into the opening, or water way, is an 
important improvement, as it does not retard the velocity or pressure 
of the stream. A great advantage with the Jones’ coupling is that 
with an increase of pressure, up to about 300 pounds to the square 
inch, the joints become tighter, and are, therefore, less liable to leak. 


52 


NOZZLES. 

I still prefer the old leather nozzle, with a metal tip, to the long 
metal nozzles, which are now much used. A leather nozzle may be 
bent in all directions which one of metal cannot be, and as in fighting 
fire it is very frequently necessary that the fireman may stand behind 
a projection, and direct the stream by bending the nozzle without 
exposing much of his body to the heat and flames, the importance of 
short metal nozzles or leather nozzles are evident. Morse’s monitor 
nozzle is an important invention, as by simply turning a crank the nozzle 
may be turned in any position and held there. The so-called “spray” 
nozzle is a new and valuable invention, as it is frequently impossible 
for firemen to see on entering a burning building, on account of smoke, 
sometimes created by insignificant fires, which it is impossible to detect 
for some time, on account of the smoke generated. The spray nozzle 
produces a fine spray, which precipitates the smoke around it, giving 
the firemen an opportunity to see and follow up the fire. 

Drip couplings are good for places in which the hose is attached to 
hydrants at all times. They consist of couplings Nvith small openings 
or slots in the bottom, so that any contained water or water created'by 
the leakage of valves, will not reach the hose which would deteriorate 
it, but will escape through the slot before reaching the same. 


Pressure at 
Hydrant. 
Pounds per sq. 
inch. 

Discharge per 
minute. 
Gallons. 

Distance reached by jet. 

Horizontal feet. 

Vertical feet. 

15 

84 

54 

26 

20 

98 

62 

35 

25 

112 

72 

45 

30 

122 

80 

52 

35 

132 

‘ 88 

60 

40 

140 

96 

67 

45 

149 

103 

75 

50 

157 

111 

80 

55 

165 

118 

88 

60 

172 

125 

93 

65 

180 

132 

101 

70 

186 

139 

106 

75 

193 

145 

111 

80 

199 

150 

116 

85 

205 

156 

121 












53 


The above table, taken from the excellent work of Mr. Geo. A. 
Ellis, serves as a basis for estimating the diameter of distributing 
mains, for the passage of water through them, and is found for 100 
feet of rubber hose and one inch smooth nozzle: 

[A number of lantern projections illustrated the various nozzles.] 

• TANKS. 

Tanks should be of large size, even larger than is usually thought 
to be sufficient. They should be provided with an overflow valve, 
and the contents should not be allowed to freeze. This can be pre¬ 
vented by passing an exhaust steam pipe through the tank, or by mix¬ 
ing the water with salt, which will at the same time prevent the for¬ 
mation of organic slimes, which are objectionable. The tank should 
be in a position least exposed to the cold north winds. An alarm valve 
should be introduced in the t&nk, which gives an alarm, either by 
whistle or bell, whenever the water falls below a certain height in the 
tank. A better arrangement is an automatic electric alarm, which can 
be put in connection with the office of the superintendent, and gives 
the alarm there whenever the water falls below a certain height in the 
tank, being at the same time a tell-tale on the engineer in charge of 
the pump. Tanks should always be placed on the strongest part of a 
building, and on that part which will be apt to stand longest in case 
of fire. A fire-proof stair-way house, well sheltered from the flames 
of the surrounding buildings, is an excellent position. 

SPRINKLERS. 

For some years past mills have been provided with perforated 
sprinkler pipes, which extend through the mill lengthwise, and are 
perforated with numerous holes, one-tenth of an inch in diameter and 
from eight to ten inches apart. When a fire occurs, the water is 
turned on by a valve outside of the building, water rushing into the 
pipes, and being discharged through the openings. The great objec¬ 
tion which is found to this system in practice is that the water is not 
confined to those spots only at which the fire occurs, but is distributed 
over the entire premises provided with such sprinkler pipes, and fre¬ 
quently it was found that the damage done by the water was inestima¬ 
bly greater than that which would have been done by the fire. 

Another great objection to it is that it requires human help in order 


54 


to turn it on, and all who have had experience in fire technology know 
of how little value that is in case of fire. 

To overcome these various objections, automatic sprinklers were 
invented a long time since, the first being' turned on by means of 
levers with weights attached to them, which were held in position by 
strings, which on burning through released the lever and set the 
sprinklers in operation. At present, automatic sprinklers consist of 
a system of pipes, which extend near the ceiling, and the water is 
released, by valves attached to the pipes, by the heat created by the 
fire. The valves are kept closed by means of fusible solder, which 
melts at a temperature of 150°F. or over. The heat which arises 
from the fire melts the solder joint of the valves immediately over 
the place where the fire occurs, the water is expelled and is put in 
just that place where it it is needed at the time, and not thrown over 
the entire premises, as was the case with the former sprinklers. 

Automatic sprinklers are divided into two great classes, (1) sealed 
sprinklers , such as the Rose, Bishop, Burritt, Parmelee, etc.; and 
(2) the sensitive , such as the Neracher, Kane Bros., Brown & Hall, 
Buell, Burritt, Grinnell, etc. 

Automatic sprinklers have now been in use for about twelve years, 
and a series of tests made by Mr. Woodbury shows that the fusible 
solder has not deteriorated in that time, and still possesses all its valu¬ 
able properties. It was formerly thought that the solder would in the 
course of time, through corrosion (oxidation and pressure), become 
worthless, which these tests seem to disprove. The effectiveness of 
automatic sprinklers is shown by the fact that out of 110 fires in fac¬ 
tories in which they were introduced, and of which the amount of 
damage was accurately determined, for 67 or 60*9 per cent, no damage 
was claimed; for 12 or 10*9 per cent, the damage done was less than 
$250; for 8 or 7‘2 per cent, the amount of loss was between $250 and 
$500; for 11 or 9*9 per cent, between $500 or $1,000; for 12 or 
10*9 per cent, between $1,000 or $20,000. 

I consider automatic sprinklers of a specially great value in those 
parts of factories in which finely divided organic substances or dusts 
are created, as, for instance, in the picker and card rooms of textile 
mills, in flour mills, malt mills and so on, as the water projected from 
the ceilings precipitates the dust, and therefore removes one of the 
most dangerous sources and causes of fire, and prevents the fire from 
extending further by means of the ignitible dust. 


55 


[The various sprinklers which have been tried and found effective 
were then shown and explained by means of slides projected on the 
screen.] 

By a series of tests made by Professor Morton, President of the 
Stevens’ Institute, for the New York Board of Underwriters, it was 
shown that the tank which supplies the sprinklers should in every 
case be at least ten feet above all pipes; and the following table shows 
the amount of water which is used in fifteen* minutes for pipes of the 
following diameters, to which the following number of sprinklers are 
attached: 


Tank , ten feet above all pipes. 


Diameter of Pipe. 

Number of Sprinklers 
Supplied. 

Gallons running for fifteen 
minutes. 

% inch 

2 

212 

1 

4 

424 


5 

530 

i X “ 

9 

954 

2 

16 

1,696 

2^ “ 

25 

2,550 

3 “ 

36 

3,816 

3/4 “ 

49 

5,194 

4 

64 

6,784 

5 

100 

10,600 

6 “ 

144 

15,264 

STEAM JETS. 


Live steam is one of the best substances we possess for extinguishing 
fires in small inclosed compartments. All small rooms, such as picker 
and drying rooms, should be supplied with ample sized steam jets. In 
order to make steam jets effective they should be turned on from the 
outside, the valves being located in some secure position, as the first 
impulse of every one, in case of fire, is to run out; when reason returns, 
a person is more apt to turn on a valve from the outside than he would 
be to enter the burning room and turn the valve. But, in order to 
make a steam jet absolutely effective, it should be automatic. I or 
this purpose I invented the following device: On the steam supply 
pipe a ring is tightly fitted, to which is attached a rod, which, on its 










56 


end, is formed into a fork-like projection. On top of this fork a 
bar is placed, to which a rope, impregnated with substances which will 
cause it to burn rapidly when ignited, is attached; and the two sec¬ 
tions of the rope are held together by means of a fusible solder joint. 
This rope serves to hold in place a lever to which a weight is attached. 
This lever is in connection with a valve. I use for this purpose a 
spring valve, constructed by the Bellfield Valve Company, which will 
not corrode, and which works easily and well in all cases. To the 
small rod, which rests on the open fork, a rod is attached, which passes 
through a small slot or pipe in the wall to the outside, and to it a con¬ 
venient handle is attached. Now, let us suppose that a fire occurs in 
a picker room, and that, as is generally the case, the employes run out. 
Should one of them be cool headed enough, he would go to the outside, 
pull the handle, and thereby draw the bar, which rests loosely on the 
open fork, from the fork; the lever would drop and open the steam 
into the room. 5 u b kt us suppose that the employe has not the proper 
amount of coolness, and Jie runs away without turning on the steam 
from the outside. Then the temperature will rise to 160°F., the tem¬ 
perature at which the fusible solder joint will melt and separate (the 
solder joint may be fixed for any temperature by altering the composi¬ 
tion and proportions of the ingredients of the solder); the lever will 
be released, as in the former case, and the steam turned on. Let us, 
however, suppose that through some unforseen accident the solder joint 
would not work, then we still have as a third means the extremely 
inflammable rope, which would soon be ignited, and burn through, thus 
causing the valve to be turned on. We therefore have three resorts, 
one of which would undoubtedly work. 

In all steam jets, be they automatic or otherwise, valves should be 
used which can be turned on readily. I have frequently found valves 
so tightly corroded and stuck fast that they were worthless in case of 
fire. 


EXTINGUISHERS. 

Extinguishers contain water which is of value on account of the 
carbonic acid gas which it contains, which replaces the air, the burning 
body being at the same time incrustated in a layer of salts. 

Carbonic acid is an excellent extinguishing means in any form. I 
suppose you all have seen the experiment of extinguishing a number 
of candles placed in a trough, by means of pouring carbonic acid gas 
in one end and allowing it to flow through. 


57 


One of our large soda water establishments has extinguished several 
small fires in their building and neighborhood by means of the carbonic 
acid contained in their soda water apparatuses. A druggist extin¬ 
guished a small lot of benzine, which had taken fire in his store, by a 
bucketful of soda water, which he sensibly drew from his fountain and 
poured upon it, instead of using ordinary water, which would have 
been of no avail. 

Extinguishers, in the proper sense of the term, as first used, consist 
of apparatuses containing gas, which in case of fire is released, supply¬ 
ing the place of the air and thereby extinguishing the fire. The appa¬ 
ratus of Cartier consists of a cylinder of sheet-iron which is tested for 
a pressure of eighteen atmospheres. To both ends are attached bot¬ 
toms of sheet steel, and by means of a specially constructed filling pipe 
in the upper end water and bi-carbonate of soda are poured and the 
pipe tightly closed, and when used tartaric acid is injected by a special 
device, which causes the formation of carbonic acid gas and sodium 
salts. These are partially absorbed by the water, and the gas produces 
a pressure of from four to seven atmospheres on the contained water, 
which, when the cock of the nozzle is opened, produces a strong stream. 
Shaetfer and Budenberg use the same substances under a pressure of 
ten atmospheres. 

Instead of the expensive tartaric acid, Zabel and Dick first substi¬ 
tuted sulphuric acid. In Dick's apparatus the sulphuric acid is con¬ 
tained in a separate glass, which, in case of fire, is broken and then 
reacts on the bi-carbonate of soda. In Zabel's apparatus the sulphuric 
acid is contained in a glass cylinder, which is turned upside down in 
case of fire, and the cover, thereby opening, mixes with the salts and 
produces the gas. 

Similar to these are the apparatuses of Masnata, who releases car¬ 
bonic acid gas with sulphuric acid and the carbonates of different 
elements; and the apparatuses of Baragwanath and Van Wisker. 

Among our efficient American extinguishers may be mentioned the 
Harkness Pneumatic Extinguisher. A new extinguisher called “ The 
Climax," which is before you; in this sodium bi-carbonate and oxalic 
acid is used. The. extinguisher is charged with water, and the dry 
material is placed in two receptacles above it. When used, the dry 
material is dropped into the water by relieving the bottoms of the 
receptacles which are attached by hinges; carbonic acid gas is generated 
and oxalate of sodium formed, .the charged water being ejected by 


58 


means of a small pump attached to the apparatus. This is an excel¬ 
lent extinguisher, while used on the floor, as it may be frequently 
refilled, fre§h substances being added, and the pumping continued; but 
it cannot be used on ladders, as is necessary in reaching ignited sub¬ 
stances on high walls or ceilings. 

Platt’s extinguisher, which has been kindly loaned me for this even¬ 
ing, has been used with great success for many years. Its great 
value consists in its simplicity, as the most ignorant workmen can be 
readily taught to use it. It is put into operation by merely turning the 
valve handle as far to the left as possible, and turning the extinguisher 
upside down. This firm also manufactures small extinguishers, which 
can readily be carried on the back, and which can be used on ladders 
for reaching substances which cannot be reached by a stream from the 
ground. These extinguishers were employed in the Electrical Exhibi¬ 
tion. 

In choosing an extinguisher we must, as in choosing all other 
machinery, take those which are simplest and least apt to get out of 
order, and those which contain substances, and arrangements by which 
the metal of the apparatus is not corroded, (as many are put into the 
market which will last but a few years, on account of the corrosive nature 
and method of placing the ingredients.) 

Of late, so-called hand grenades have been used. These, which 
are highly ornamental, I do not advise. The extinguishing material 
is contained in bottles, which must be broken in order to cause the ex¬ 
tinguishing liquid to be spread over the flames. It is exceedingly 
difficult to break the bottles over a fire, by taking two bottles, as is 
generally advised, and breaking them over the point of danger; while 
we frequently find the bottles, which are strongly made, are not broken 
by throwing them into places which cannot be got at such as burning 
yarn, raw stock, waste, and so on. The joke of a prominent under¬ 
writer when he first saw them is not perhaps out of place, who said 
that in case of fire persons would be apt to look for a corkscrew to re¬ 
move the cork in the bottle before putting out the fire. The wire racks 
in which some grenades are placed are valuable additions. These con¬ 
sist of wire baskets so arranged that when the grenades are removed 
from them, a fire alarm is given. 


59 


EXTINGUISHING POWDEKS. 

Bucher’s extinguishing powder partially rarefies the air, by heating 
the atmosphere, and also withdraws air in enclosed spaces, producing 
sulphurous acid, which tends to smother the fire. According to Heeren, 
the value and extinguishing results of burning sulphur of carbon does 
not consist in the absorption of oxygen from the air, and the effects of 
burning Bucher’s powder are not produced by the resulting gases re¬ 
placing the air, but he believes that the gases which are thus caused, 
consisting largely of sulphurous and carbonic acid gas, having a higher 
specific gravity than air prevent all draught or circulation around burn¬ 
ing substances, and that, therefore, air cannot reach them and supply 
the oxygen necessary for combustion. Liquified sulphurous acid is 
one of the best means for extinguishing fire. 

Bucher’s powder, as prepared by Wittstein, contains 60 parts of 
saltpetre, 36 parts of sulphur and 4 parts of charcoal. Schweizer 
prepares the powder with the following composition : Saltpetre, 58*53 
parts; sulphur, 36*33 parts; charcoal, 3*14 parts; sand, 75 parts,and 
oxide of iron, 1*25 parts. Heeren prepares Bucher’s powder in the 
following manner: Saltpetre, 63*73 parts; sulphur, 28*93 parts ; char¬ 
coal, 3*80 parts, and oxide of iron, 3*54 parts. 

The ingredients are not powdered quite as finely as for the manu¬ 
facture of gunpowder. They are then mixed and placed in small 
packages of paste board, so tightly packed that only a very sharp in¬ 
strument can separate the partioles. The composition can readily be 
ignited and burns (without exploding) with a strong white flame and 
strong penetrating odor and smoke. Out of every pound, 4*82 cubic 
feet of gas are produced, consisting of 2*36 cubic feet of sulphurous 
acid, 1*10 cubic feet of carbonic acid, and 1*36 cubic feet of nitrogen. 
According to Bucher, about one pound of the material should be used 
for every 240 cubic feet of space. In case of fire, the powder is thrown 
into the fire, whereby the results above described will be produced. 

These powders are only of value in small enclosed rooms, without 
many ventilating openings, and has practically proved valueless in 
places exposed to great draughts. One great objection to it is that it 
is extremely dangerous to life, as several cases of severe accidents have 
occurred in Europe. It has been of great value in drying rooms, 
where substances coated or impregnated with petroleum compounds 
are dried; as, for instance, Dorn reports a case in which a severe fire 
in the drying room of an oil cloth factory was extinguished by it. 


60 


The extinguishing composition of Zeisler consists of 60 parts salt¬ 
petre, 36 parts sulphur, and 4 parts charcoal and lime. The mass, 
after being mixed, is compressed into cartridges by means of a hydraulic 
press, and several of them are connected by a hermetically enclosed 
easily ignitable fuse. 

Gruneberg’s composition consists of 20 parts potassium chloride, 
50 parts potassium saltpetre, 50 parts sulphur, 10 parts rosin and 1 
part magnesium di-oxide, tightly packed in the form of cartridges. 

Johnstone’s powder consists of equal parts of potassium chloride, 
rosin, potassium saltpetre and black oxide of manganese, moistened 
with water-glass, and then pressed into briquettes, a number of which 
are shipped in one box, being connected by a fuse which can readily 
be ignited and thus ignite the mass. The box being suspended near 
the ceiling. 


OTHER MEANS. 

Other means for extinguishing fire which have been used are sul¬ 
phide of carbon, liquified sulphurous acid, the gaseous products from 
under the boiler, water-glass, salt, magnesium chloride, sulphate of 
allumina, ammonia gas, borax, sodium phosphate, Glauber salts, soda, 
etc. 

Burning fats, rosins, pitch, etc., can be successfully extinguished by 
placing wire gauze of very fine mesh over the burning mass. The 
reason for this is, as is the reason for the efficiency of the Davy safety, 
lamp, that flames are not transmitted through wire gauze, as the wire 
being a good conductor, conducts away the heat, preventing the flames 
from passing. 

Sand is a very good mode of extinguishing fires originating in pitch, 
tar, petroleum and its products; as in this case water will be of little 
value, while sand, when piled on to burning substances, cuts off the 
supply of oxygen from the air, causing the flames to be extinguished. 

FIRE BRIGADES. 

Fire brigades were in use among the ancients. Thus we find under 
Augustus Cseser, A. U. C. 732, that the Romans had a fire brigade of 
600 freedmen. 

Organized fire brigades in factories, should be drilled at least once a 
week. Every man should have his special duty assigned him and 
know exactly what to do in case of fire; only these men should be 


61 


allowed to take part in extinguishing tires ; strict rules should be 
promulgated, that every one not belonging to the fire brigade must 
remove from the premises as soon as the fire alarm is given, thus giving 
the firemen room to work. The brigade should be drilled at a diffe¬ 
rent hour weekly, for if they be always drilled at the same-time, they 
will be prepared for the event; will go through their drill at this time 
in good manner, but when a fire starts at another time they will be 
excited and slow to get to work. For this reason it is necessary that 
the chief of the brigade give the fire signal at different times every 
week, and thus get the department on duty at times when they do 
not expect it. He will thereby, accustom his people to get to work 
rapidly at all times, and as they do not, at the time when the alarm is 
first struck, know if it is merely an alarm or an actual fire, in the course 
of time get over the excitement which is generally incidental to such 
an occurrence. It is absolutely necessary, that the chief insists that on 
all occasions his men get to work immediately. If he allows slovenly 
practice, he will have the same affairs in case of fire. 

WATCHMEN. 

A good watchman is of great advantage in a mill, but in order to 
effectively control him, watch-clocks or time detectors, as they are more 
frequently called, should be introduced, as a watchman, without a watch- 
clock, in the majority of cases, is worthless. It is a standing jol^e at 
the Patrol that the first thing they have to do in arriving at a fire is to 
save the watchman, as he is almost invariably sound asleep and would 
burn to death. 

[Various time detectors were shown on the screen, such as the station¬ 
ary clock, to which a button lever is attached, which must be pushed 
at required times, either hourly or half hourly, as the rounds may be, 
and will the next morning, from the perforations on a time card, show 
the superintendent if the watch has been properly carried on. The 
Buerk’s time detector which consists of a clock, which the watchman 
carries with him, while the keys are fastened. The marks on the card 
next morning show whether the watchman has made his rounds.] 

Special care must be taken to have the keys or stations provided in 
all dangerous places where fires are likely to originate, so as to keep 
them under constant supervision. 

A clock gains in value by simplicity, and the manner in which it is 
protected against tampering of watchmen as it is frequently to their 


62 


interest to conceal breaches of discipline by tampering with the clocks. 

For this reason an electric time detector is an excellent arrangement 
it consists of buttons placed at the various stations, the watchman, in 
pressing these, gives a signal impression on a time card in a clock in the 
superintendent’s office. It is very difficult for the watchman to tamper 
with the apparatus as his only means is to cut the wire, which in well 
managed establishments would cause his immediate dismissal. 

[Various electric watch-clocks were then thrown on the screen and 
explained.] 

FIRE ALARMS. 

The first fire alarms used were either large bells, gongs, or whistles 
which, by their peculiar sound, would make known that a fire had 
originated. The ordinary steam whistle is an excellent arrangement. 
This consists of a hollow hemisphere against which the steam is blown 
from a valve, the metal is set in vibration, imparts this motion to the 
contained and surrounding atmosphere, setting this also in vibration, 
thus producing a sound. Where steam whistles are used as fire alarms 
it is necessary that these should be very loud and have a shrill peculiar 
sound, different from all others in the neighborhood, so that persons 
may at once recognize it. 

Automatic fire alarms have been introduced for some time. One of 
the oldest is that of Joseph Smith, first introduced in 1802, which was 
set in operation by means of a cord, which being burnt through released 
a lever in connection with a steam whistle or a bell. 

Another apparatus used was a wire extending over a mercury recept¬ 
acle, connected with a lever, which it held in place. When the tem¬ 
perature rose, the mercury contained in the receptacle touched the wire, 
amalgamated the same, which caused the tensile strain on the wire to 
part it, relieve the lever and cause an alarm. These devices were never 
of much practical value. 

Of late the so-called thermostats have been introduced. These are 
of various construction ; some consisting of strips of different metals, 
tightly fastened together, which, by their unequal expansion, bend, there¬ 
by forming contact with a metal strip, which closes an electric circuit, 
causing an alarm to be struck at the fire station. 

Another consists of a bulb containing mercury, into the bottom of 
which a wire is melted, and in the upper end a wire which does not 
touch the mercury, is hermetically sealed. When the temperature 


63 


increases, the mercury in the column rises and touches the upper wire, 
forming contact, closes the circuit, and gives the alarm at the station. 

Another very ingenious device is that of Fein of Stuttgart, which 
consists of an arrangement held in place by means of a spring, the 
spring in its turn being held in place by a fusible cylinder. The 
temperature rises, destroys the fusible cylinder, the spring is released, and 
contact is made, an electric circuit formed giving the alarm. 

[A number of these devices were then thrown on the screen and 
explained.] 



/ 



f 


CLASS 

ESTIMATES AND LISTS WITH 


DISCOUNTS PROMPTLY FURNISHED. 


FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC PLATE, 

WINDOW GLASS, CUT, GROUND 

AND ENGRAVED, Etc., Etc. 


MIRROR PLATES, 

SKYLIGHT GLASS, 

CHURCH GLASS, 

CATHEDRAL, LEADED, Etc., Etc. 


JOHN LUCAS* CO. 

PHILADELPHIA, NEW YORK, 

HI 143 H 4th, 322 to 330 EASE 3T. 39 UAIDEH LANE. 

NEW JERSEY, 

FACTORIES, SIBSB0E0. 


WHITE LEAD, 

WHITE ZINC, 

GREENS, 

YELLOWS, 

BLUES, ETC. 


Lucas’ Foster Filler and Hard Oil Finish, 

THE MOST RELIABLE FOR 

ZEE .A. E/ ID WOODS. 


PAINTS. 


Liykrpool«»Lohdoh«»€lobk 


INSURANCE COMPANY, 



Nos, 331,333,333,33/ WALNUT STREET, Philadelphia, 


ATWOOD SMITH, General Agent. 








(^ommGRciAL Union 

ASSURANCE COMPANY, 

HN’OF LONDON.^* 

Philadelphia Office, No. 330 Walnut Street 



Full indemnity against loss by fire . Textile Mills 
and other desirable propei ty insured . 

ALL PHILADELPHIA LOSSES ADJUSTED AND PAID BY 


TATTNALL PAULDING, 

Local Representative, Phila. 


























I. P. mORRIS comp ARY, 

PORT RICHMOND IRON WORKS, 

FOUNDED 1828. INCORPORATED 1876. 

EjiijijiE feUlLbtbp, 

IRON ROUNDERS, 

BOILER MAKERS and 

GENERAL MACHINISTS. 


HEAVY MACHINERY A SPECIALTY. 


1825 * 1885 . 

THE PENNSYLVANIA FIRE INSURANCE CO. 


INCORPORATED 1825-CHARTER PERPETUAL. 


Office, 510 ST., opp. ITTOEPEITOETTCE SQTTAEE. 

CAPITAL, $400,000.00. ASSETS, $2,378,918.23. 

DIRECTORS.— John Devereux, Isaac Hazlehurst, Henry Lewis, Daniel Had¬ 
dock, Jr., Franklin A. Comly, Edwin N. Benson, R. Dale Benson, 

John R. Fell. 

JOHN DEVPTREUX. President. R. DATjE BENSON, Vice-President. 

JOHN L. THOMSON, Secretary. W. GARDNER CROWELL Asst. Secretary 


mSTRGP &. GO., 

FIRE AND MARINE INSURANCE AGENTS, 

331. WAEOTf STREET, FHIJ.A. 





AM OYSEIEIR TH4T SIE1FS. 

Jtit tLtCjtllC (lllJOWJIC LOW Vf/ITttt Wb|H 
FOR FIRE BUCKEC$. 

This Invention consists of the best Rack for 
hanging Buckets. Sets an Electric Bell in 
motion whenever a bucket becomes nearly 
half empty, and continues to ring until the 
bucket is properly filled. 

Prevents the use of buckets for other pur¬ 
poses than extinguishing fires, as the alarm is 
set in operation whenever a bucket is removed 
from the rack, and continues to ring until it 
is replaced, properly filled. 

The Each can he used for any variety of bucket, and can be adjusted for an ordinary wooden pail as well as for the 
largest iron fire buoket. 

CHEAP, SIMPLE and DURABLE. 

Saves the labor of overseeing backets in Mills, 
and insures to insurance companies a perfect con¬ 
dition of fire buckets, by means of which over 50 per 
cent . of all fires are extinguished. 

The batteries used can at the same time be em¬ 
ployed for other purposes , such as electric call bells , 
fire alarms , etc. Shipped to any part of the United 
States and Canada, with full directions for erecting. 
For estimates apply to 

OTTO FLEMMING, 

1009 ARCH ST., PHILA. 


■WILL SIE PEOSECUTEI1. 




CHAETEE PERPETUAL. 


1829 . 

FRANKLIN 


1888 . 

FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, 

OF PHILADELPHIA. 


ASSETS, Jan. 1st, 1885, $3,050,305.63. 

Officers.—Jas. W. McAllister, President. Francis P. Steel, Vice-President. 

Ezra T. Cresson, Secretary. Samuel W. Kay, Asst. Sec’y. 

Agency Department, George F. Reger, Manager. 


MECHANICS FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, 


OF PHILADELPHIA. 

CAPITAL, $250,000. ASSETS, $550,000. SYEPLUS TO POLICY HOLDEES, $350,000. 

President—Francis McManus. Vice-President—James Wood. Secretary—John H. Davis. 



KREMER & DURBAN, 

No. 312 WALNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 


Experienced Mill Underwriters. Lowest Rates and Prompt Settlements. 


TELEPHONE No. 360. 


General Insurant Amy. 


LOUIS WAGNER, 


No. 218 WALNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. 


Companies Represented : 

Merchants Insurance Co., of Providence, R. I. American Insurance Co., of Newark, N. J. Equitable 
Fire and Marine Insurance Co., of Providence, R. I. Atlantic Fire and Marine Insurance 
Co., of Providence, R. I. Commercial Insurance Co., of San Francisco, Cai. 

California Insurance Co., of San Francisco, Cat. Firemans Fund 
Insurance Co., of San Francisco, Cal. Union Insur¬ 
ance Co., of San Francisco, Cal, 


Fire, Life, Accident and Marine Insurance effected in all Reliable Companies 















THE 



Fire Pump, with 18 in. steam cyl., 8 in. water cyl., 18 in. stroke. 

STEAM PUMPS FOR FIRE PURPOSES A SPECIALTY. 

EITHER SINGLE OR DUPLEX PATTERN. 

;—ALSO— 

MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY VARIETY OF STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Those about to have Painting done should send for pamphlet bearing the above 
title, which will be furnished by the publishers free of charge. It contains many val¬ 
uable hints as to paints and painting, and gives information as to where access ean be 
had to 


THIRTY-FIVE COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS, 


Showing the Effect of Various Combinations of Colors on 

COTTAGES AOD VILLAS, 

□f Different Designs nf Architecture, 


PUBLISHED BY HARRISON BROS. & CO., 


PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 








CHAS. W. CARYL, 

Expert and Dealer in every description of 

CHEMICAL FIRE APPARATUS. 

Address, E 3 . O. Eos 399, IF’lxila.d.elpls.ia,, 2?a.. 

SPRING GARDEN INSURANCE CO. 

(FIRE INSURANCE.—TERM AND PERPETUAL.) 

Wo. 431 WALWITT STREET, 

Organized 1835. 

Cash Capital, $400,000.00. Cash Assets, January 1, 1885, $1,176,078.69. 

NELSON F. EVANS, President. JACOB E. PETERSON, Secretary. 

PENN MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE CdR 

OF PHILADELPHIA. 

ASSETS, $10,000,000. SURPLUS, 1,900,000. 

ORGANIZED IN 1847. 

Thirty .seven years successful business. P urely Mutual. All approved forms of Life and Endow¬ 
ment Policies issued. Policies absolutely Non-Forfeitable for “ reserve” value, and 
Incontestable after three years. 


n. D. wood cfc co., 

PHILADELPHIA. 


CAST IRON WATER & CAS PIPE. 


Mathew’s (Anti-Freezing) Fire Hydrants. 


EDDY (ADJUSTABLE) VALVES. 

GEYELIN'S DUPLEX TURBINE. 

Gas "Works Plants Complete. 


Holders, 

Scrubbers, 

Governors, 


Condensers, 

Purifiers, 

Bench Work. 


SUGAR HOUSE WORKS, HEAVY MACHINERY CASTINGS. 














Of Liverpool, Eng. 


STATEMENT UNITED STATES BRANCH, JAN. 1, 1885. 

Assets, $4,444,773.99. Unearned Premium and other Liabilities, $2,461,183.05. 

Surplus, . - - $1,983,590.94. 

Income during the Year 1884, - - $2,678,754.59. 
Expenditures, including Losses, - - 2,386,809.04. 


GEORGE WOOD, Manager, 

Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware. 

X2,® 37 -al X 3 as-u.ra 3 n.ee Co. B-u.lld.isn.g', 306 "Wa.l3n.-cLt Street, 3?2a.ila.. 


London and Lancashire Fire Insurance Eo., 


OF LIVERPOOL, ENG. 


UNITED STATES BRANCH STATEMENT, JAN. 1, 1885. 

Assets, $1,415,424.45. Unearned Premiums and other Liabilities, $704,427’54. 

Surplus, - $650,996.91. 

Income during the Year 1884, - - $1,067,618.40. 
Expenditures, including Losses, - - 1,106,230.76. 


GEORGE WOOD, Manager. 

Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware. 

/ 

IE2.©3ral X 3 n.s-u.ra. 3 n.ee Co. E-CLild-ion-g 1 , 306 al3n.-u.t Street, IPlxxla.. 


/ 


/ 















J2TNA INSC1ANGE GO., 

Hartford, Conn. 


INCORPORATED 1819. CHARTER PERPETUAL. 


FIRE INSURAOXrOE. 


LOSSES PAID IN 66 YEARS, - $57,300,000. 


JANUARY 1, 1885. 


Cash Capital', - 

Reserve for Re-Insurance, Unpaid 

Losses, 

$4,000,000.00. 

and other Liabilities, 

- 

8,04,9,026.85. 

Surplus over all Liabilities, 

- 

2,964,490.55. 

Total Assets, 

- 

P,013,51740. 

Follows: 

Cash in Banks, - - - 

- 

$1,015,821.60. 

Cash in hands of Agents, - 

- 

852,742.32. 

Real Estate, - - - 

- 

862,000.00. 

Loans on Bond and Mortgage, 

- 

48,800.00. 

Loans on Collaterals, 

- 

15,170.00. 

Stocks and Bonds, 

- 

7,222,520.00. 

Accrued Interest, - 

- 

1,465.48. 

Total Assets, 

- 

p,013,31740. 


PHILADELPHIA BRANCH, 

403 WALNUT STREET, 

WM. C. GOODRICH, Agent. 













TRANSMISSION MACHINERY 

SPECIAL. ATTENTION GIVEN TO 

PBEVENTING LOSS BY FEICTION, SAVING POWEE AND LESSENING EISZ BY ,FIBE. 

ALL WOEE “ E7N ” AND WELL TESTED BEFOEE SHIPMENT. 


HANGERS, 

COUPLINGS, 

’Whole 

Fmlieya* 

Farting 

Fialleys. 



best firms use this shafting. 


Pat. Adjustable Guide Pulley Stand. 



SHAFTING 

-A- 

Specialty 



Pat. Improved Ball and Socket 
Adjustaole Hanger. 


ALL WORK FIRST CLASS. 


PHILA. SHAFTING WORKS, 

GEO. Y. CRESSON, 

18th and Hamilton Sts. 






THE AMERICAN FIRE 

Insurance Company. 



Offices in Company’s Building, 

308 & 310 WALNUT STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


Cash Capital.$400,000 00 

Reserve for Reinsurance and all other 

claims. 961,449 51 

Surplus over all Liabilities. 406,642 74 


Total Assets, January 1, 1885, $1,768,092 25. 


DIRECTORS : 

T. H. MONTGOMERY, ISRAEL MORRIS, 

JOHN WELSH, JOHN P. WETHERILL, 

JOHN T. LEWIS, WILLIAM W. PAUL, 

THOMAS R. MARIS, PEMBERTON S. HUTCHINSON, 

ALEXANDER BIDDLE. 


THOMAS H. MONTGOMERY, President. 

ALBERT C. L. CRAWFORD, Secretary. 

RICHARD MARIS, Assistant Secretary. 












OUR, BRANDS Off 


x xx e xx o s :e5.*€- 

64 U**i<jnc” Brand. Is our popular brand, which has gained such 
a splendid record in so many large cities. 

“Keystone” Brand, is also a double or jacket hose like the 
Unique, but made of lighter material and designed for cities of from ten to 
fifty thousand inhabitants. 

“Patrol ” Brand. Is a solid fabric hose. 

“ Safety ” Brand. The Safety or Mill hose is designed for factories, 
store houses and hydrant purposes. 

“ Lawn or Garden Hose.” Is made with a £ or f inch internal 
diameter. It is warranted to stand 500 pounds to the - square inch, is not 
injured by exposure to sun or weather and can be left out all summer with 
perfect safety. __ 

LIBEEAL DISCOUNT TO THE TEADE. 


WHAT WE CLAIM FOR OUR HOSE. 


The Fabric Fire Hose Company’s claims for superiority in fire hose 
consist of the Balanced Woven principle for which they hold patents, 
whereby the circular or weft threads run in opposite directions, thus equal¬ 
izing the strain on the hose when under pressure; this applies particularly 
to the “ Unique ” and “ Keystone ” brands. 

During the past six years the Company has triumphantly demonstrated 
by successful experiments and the severest practical tests, that their pat¬ 
ented process by which the yarn is treated before weaving renders the hose 
absolutely Mildew and Rot-Proof under any reasonable use or abuse. 

Being “ twill-weave” it presents a smooth water way and a Superior 
Wearing Surface— everyone knows that twilled goods will outwear 
plain woven goods. 

Hundreds of chief engineers have over their own signatures unhesi¬ 
tatingly pronounced the “ Warwick” hose the most perfect fire hose ever 
invented, possessing as it does a Smooth Bore or Water-Way, thereby 
doing away with nearly all friction, a desideratum alone sufficient to recom¬ 
mend it to all practical firemen. 

Again, its extreme Light Weight and Pliability render it capable 
of being handled with great ease ana rapidity, a consideration of the utmost 
importance when every moment is valuable. 

Finally, this hose combines lightness with great strength and 
durability. Being softer and more pliable, fewer men are required to 
handle it and a larger quantity can be carried upon a reel. 

For further information, address : 

Fatorio Fir© Hose Company, 

1 Barclay St., New York City. 


PRICE LIST. 

CLASS A. Includes the various brands of Fire Department hose,upon which we shall at all times 
endeavor to meet the ruling market prices, for the best grade of hose. Cheap hose, which is necessarily 
made of poorer materials, is the dearest that can be bought. Write for samples and prices. 

CLASS B. Safety, Mill or Hydrant Hose. 1 inch (internal diameter), 28 cents per foot. 1% 
inch (internal diameter), 45 cents per foot. 2 inch (internal diameter), 50 cents per foot. 2% inch (internal 
diameter), 55 cents per foot. Couplings extra. Larger sizes to order. 

MISCELLANEOUS. Fabric, leather, rubber or brass discharge pipes, pipe mountings, couplings, 
spanners and a full line of Fire Department supplies, constantly on hand. For samples, prices or other 
information, address our agents or 

Fatoric Fire Hose Company, 

1 Barclay Street, New York. 






ROOFING. 


“ In a permanent structure a Good Roof is only second in importance to a 
good foundation.”— Franklin. 


SLAG-STONE ROOFING 
Is both Fire-Proof and Water-Proof, is cheaper and more 
durable than metal, is not affected by gases, can be 
successfully applied to any flat or nearly flat surface . 


It is INSURED by the best Companies at SAME 
RATE as METAL or SLATE. 


—WE REFER BY PERMISSION TO— 

Baldwin Locomotive Works, 

Eddystone Print Works, 

Penna. Salt Manufacturing Co., 

Edwin H. Fitler & Co., 

Harrison Brothers & Co. 

Atlantic Refinery Co., 

Henry Dieston & Sons, 

W. L. Elkins & Co., 

Baeder, Adamson & Co., 

And many others. 

We will furnish full description and give estimates for Slag- 
Stone Roofing upon application. 

Warren Ehret Roofing Co., Limited, 

107 S. Second St., Philadelphia. 






North British and Mercantile 

INSURANCE COMPANY, 

Of London and Edinburgh. 


United States Branch. Statement, 

January 1st, 1885. 

ASSETS, $3,301,747.61. NET SURPLUS, $1,924,555.87. 

Losses paid in United States in 18 years, $15,210,332.00. 



HARTFORD, CONN. 


Statement of Condition January I, 1885. 

Capital Stock, paid up in Cash, . . $1,000,000.00. 
Reserve for Re-insurance, . . . 321,698.56. 
Outstanding Losses and all other Liabilities, 79,267.36. 

Net Surplus, ...... 73,477.27. 

Total Cash. Assets, . . . $1,474,443.19. 

Mercantile Insurance Company 

OF NEW YORK. 

Cash Capital, $200,000. Surplus, $15,396. 

THOMAS C. FOSTER, 

152 SOUTH FOURTH STREET, 


PHILADELPHIA, 







I 


/ 


CHAS. M. PREVOST. 


CHAS. P. HERRING. 




FIRE 



IMPERIAL BUILDING, 

411 & 413 WALNUT ST., 
PHILADELPHIA. 


/ 


AGENTS FOR THE FOLLOWING-NAMED COMPANIES: 


IMPERIAL, 0F LONDON, . 

NORTHERN, J ° 

PHENIX, BROOKLYN, 

GERMANIA, NEW Y0RK > 


. Fire only, 

. Fire and Life, 


. $ 8,727,000.0 

. 14,286,900.00 

4»34 2 >43°- 2 ’5 

2,700,075.63 


Certificates of Insurance issued on Merchandise in Elevators and Warehouses. Unusua 
facilities for placing large Lines of Insurance. 


TELEPHONE IN OFFICE. 


























“OTTO” 

GAS ENGINE. 


OVER 15,000 IN USE. 


The “Otto ” engine avoids all risks of fire and explosion incumbent to 
the generation of steam, and is recommended by Insurance Companies for 
use in Stores, Warehouses, Residences, Public Buildings, etc., and wherever 
an engine of.undoubted safety is desirable. 

SIZES: 1 TO 25 INDICATED^HORSE-POWER. 


ENGINES AND PUMPS COMBINED 

SUITABLE FOR SERVICE OF A STATIONARY FIRE ENGINE. 


Schleicher, Schumm & Co., 

33d & Walnut St., Phila. 214 Randolph St., Chicago. 


Guaranteed to consume 25 to 75 Per OTHER GAS ENGINE 

Cent. LESS GAS than All X PER BRAKE HORSE-POWER. 














































THE BUELL SPRINKLER. 


THE BUELL THERMOSTAT. 


BTJELL ELECTRICAL 

AND 

HYDRAULIC MANUFACTURING CO. 


JAS. ft. SMITH, President. 


Office, 187 Broadway, New York. 



THESE CUTS REPRESENT TWO FORMS OF THE BUELL SPRINKLERS. 

These Sprinklers will not 
leak under any reasonable pres¬ 
sure, are arranged to be acted 
upon at 155° Fahrenheit, and 
again at 250°, so that no failure 
to open can occur. These 
Sprinklers can be used and will 
open with certainty in places 
where acid fumes would make 
any other sprinkler inoperative. 

When sprinkler systems 
are used which have the water 
constantly in the pipes, they 
cannot be placed where the water 
will freeze. 

By being able to automat¬ 
ically turn on a water supply, 
the water may be normally excluded from the system of pipes during the 
winter, making it possible to place sprinklers in buildings that are not heated. 



























































































The Buell Sprinkler is adapted to be used with electrical connections 
to make operative an electric circuit when any one of a series of sprinklers 
is open, and to thereby sound an alarm, turn on a water supply and start a 
power pump to give a second water supply to the sprinkler system, or per- 
form either of said operations. 

When these sprinklers are used without the electrical connections 
the opening of any one of a series of sprinklers will produce an instant 
alarm, and turn on an auxiliary water supply, by mechanism actuated by 
the lowering of water pressure in the pipes of the sprinkler system. 

In either of the systems for giving an alarm it is contemplated to 
furnish the means for sounding such alarm upon the premises protected, and 
simultaneously at a remote place, as the house of a superintendent or a 
central station. 

The Buell thermostatic circuit is a constantly charged electric circuit, 
which is formed of lengths of wire held in electrical continuity by a solder 
that melts at 155° Fahrenheit, thus automatically opening the circuit, and 
giving an instant and definite alarm. The Buell thermostatic circuit is 
adapted to be used separate from the sprinkler system, affording the sim¬ 
plest and most efficient Fire Alarm ever invented. 

This Fire Alarm is designed to be used in isolated mills, and is 
arranged to give an alarm on the premises protected, and also at the 
superintendent’s house, or other convenient place; or to be used in cities 
to give a definite alarm for each building upon apparatus at a central 
station that is open day and night, and is provided with both telegraph and 
telephone communication with the headquarters of the city fire depart¬ 
ment, so that an automatic alarm of fire is instantly communicated to the 
city fire department from the central station of this company, announcing 
the building and floor of the building where a fire has occurred. 

The street circuits of this system are so constructed and arranged as 
to transmit a fire alarm even when broken or grounded, affording greater 
certainty than any system yet devised. This system depends entirely upon 
normally closed electric circuits, which are ruptured by heat, and are 
known to be in order at all times, as otherwise an alarm will be sounded to 
give notice of any derangements of the circuits, whether due to accident, 
neglect, or malicious interference. 

The circuits and apparatus of the Buell system are so constructed as to 
transmit a fire alarm signal that is different in character from an accidental 
or false alarm, thus avoiding the calling out of fire departments except in 
cases of actual danger. The Thermostatic devices used are wholly different 
from any that have been known before. They require no adjustment, can¬ 
not get out of adjustment, are not damaged by age, will not be made inop¬ 
erative by corrosion, and are so cheap as to admit of the most profuse dis¬ 
tribution. 

For information apply to 

J. T. MAXWELL, 

229 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 



232 "W gLla^-ULt St., HP lo.ila.. 

INCORPORATED 1794* 


OLDEST STOCK FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY 

I]\[ 'I'jiE tfjIn'ED gT'^T'Eg. 

Commenced business as an Association, 1792. Incorporated, 1794* 


NEARLY ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF HONORABLE DEALING, 


SPECIAL FEATIRES OF* THIS COMPANY ARE: 

SECURITY. Over Nine Million Dollars of Assets. 

LIBERALITY. Average loss payments exceed Six Thousand Five Hundred Dollars for 
every day in the year. 

PROMPNESS. Losses Adjusted and Paid without Delay. 

PROGRESSIVE. All desirable forms of Policies issued. 


-+OVEE $51,000,000 OP LOSSES PAID SINCE ORGANIZATION.! 


One Hundred and Efghty-Second Semi-Annual Statement of the Assets of the Company. 

Capital Stock, , , $3, 

Resbtve for RB-InsurancE, 2,51E,2CB.B4 

Resbtvb for Un adjust Ed Losses 

and othEr LiabilitiES, , 442,143,32 

Surplus ovet all LiabilitiBS, 3,12B,BBC,24 

Total Assets, Jan. 1,1885, $9,087,235.40 


CHARLES PLATT, President. T. CHARLTON HENRY, Vice-President. 

WILLIAM A. PLATT, 2d Vice-President. GREVILLE E. FRYER, Secretary. 
EUGENE L. ELLISON, Asst. Sec’y. 






























































































* 



























































































































































































































































































































































































































































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